How do sociologists study society?

1. Social investigation and research: based on the systematic and direct collection of empirical materials about social phenomena, the cognitive activities to scientifically clarify the social living conditions and social development laws through the analysis and synthesis of new materials.

2. social investigation: a stage of social investigation and research refers to the use of observation, inquiry and other methods to directly understand the situation and collect facts and data from social life, which is a perceptual knowledge activity.

3. Research: The second stage of social investigation and research refers to the process of thinking about facts, from perceptual knowledge to rational knowledge.

4. Methodology of social investigation and research: the embodiment and application of people's thinking methods and scientific general methods in social investigation and research, which provides the guiding ideology of investigation and research.

5. Basic methods of social investigation and research: also known as research methods, it shows the procedures, steps and operation methods that run through the whole process of social investigation, and it shows the specific ways through which researchers reach research conclusions.

6. Specific methods of social investigation and research: methods, techniques and tools used in a certain stage of investigation and research

Important types of social investigation and research

1. Applied investigation and research: understanding emerging new phenomena and problems through social investigation, and making scientific explanations and explanations on these problems by using social theory, and putting forward solutions or policy suggestions.

2. Theoretical investigation and research: to develop and enrich social theory through the investigation of social practical problems, and to provide knowledge about the general laws of social development.

3. general survey: also known as overall survey or comprehensive survey, it is to investigate every object in a large area or department without exception in order to understand the general situation of the whole.

4. sampling survey: select some units or individuals from the population of the survey object as samples for investigation, and infer the general situation based on the sample situation.

5. Typical survey: Select one or several representative questions from the population of the respondents to conduct a comprehensive and in-depth survey.

6. key survey: a few units are selected subjectively from the population of the respondents for investigation, and the overall situation is reflected through the situation of these units.

7: case study: select one or several respondents from the population for in-depth study, so as to describe the overall picture of a specific unit and the specific social process in depth and detail.

8. exploratory investigation and study: a research method of making a preliminary investigation of social phenomena by means of "skimming the flowers" and consulting materials.

9. Descriptive investigation and research: It can answer the question of "what is social phenomenon", and it can objectively and accurately describe the status, characteristics and development process of social phenomenon.

1. Explanatory investigation and research: It can answer the question of "why", explain the causes of social phenomena, predict the development consequences of things, and explore the causal relationship between social phenomena.

11. Cross-sectional study: a cross-sectional study of the respondents at a certain point in time.

12. Cross-section: refers to the whole picture composed of various types of respondents at the same time.

13. longitudinal study: collect data at different time points in a long period of time and do longitudinal research on social phenomena.

14. Trend research: generally speaking, it is a research on the changes of the large-scale respondents over time.

15. cohort study: the study of the changes of people with the same characteristics over time in a certain period.

16. Follow-up study: a study of the changes of the same group of people over time.

17. retrospective study: a research method similar to follow-up study, that is, to investigate the changes in attitudes or behaviors of the same group of people, but only once, asking respondents to recall what their attitudes or behaviors were in the past, but now those changes have occurred.

18. Statistical survey: a quantitative survey method, which collects comparable information from many units, and uses this comparable information to make summary statistics, so as to make a deeper quantitative analysis of the survey content.

19. field research: also known as "field investigation", it is another main way of social investigation and research. This investigation method is to go deep into the investigation site and collect information from a few units by means of observation, interview and discussion, so as to make in-depth anatomical analysis of the respondents.

2. Participation in observation: the method by which the investigator participates in the life of the group of the respondents, plays the role of one of them, and makes long-term observation on the phenomena and situations happening here in many aspects.

21. Case study: Through the investigation of individual development process, we can gain insight into why an individual has a specific behavior mode and his or her behavior tendency.

22. casing investigation: go to a representative social unit to conduct long-term and systematic investigation and study, check the effects of existing policies, plans and measures, find out the problems existing in practical work, sum up experiences and lessons, and explore the feasibility of new policies and measures, so as to guide the overall work.

General process of social investigation and research

1. Inductive reasoning: Based on empirical observation, through the description of a large number of objective phenomena, the * * * characteristics or general attributes of phenomena are summarized, and thus a theory is established to explain the inevitable and essential relationship between various observed specific phenomena or things.

2. Deductive reasoning: Based on the general theory or general law, some concrete conclusions are derived, and then they are applied to specific phenomena and things, and the theory is tested in the application process.

3. Hypothetical deduction: The logical method of scientific research, or "trial and error method", consists of deduction and induction, which helps to overcome the limitations of simple deduction or induction. It is a tentative hypothesis or theoretical explanation for solving problems. From this theoretical hypothesis, some research hypotheses can be derived, and then the hypotheses can be tested through a large number of observations.

4. research framework: concretize the subject, which can be a theoretical framework composed of specific theoretical assumptions or a framework diagram formed by some preliminary ideas.

preparation and design of social investigation and research

1. research topic: explain the specific problem to be answered in an investigation and research, which is a question about the relationship between two or more concepts or variables.

2. Preliminary exploration: it refers to consulting the opinions of relevant experts, scholars and leading cadres before the formal investigation, making a preliminary investigation at the investigation site, and having a discussion with relevant grassroots personnel, so as to understand the investigation tasks, determine the research topics, clarify the investigation contents, enhance perceptual knowledge, and lay a foundation for putting forward research hypotheses and formulating research plans.

3. research hypothesis: a speculative judgment or assumption on the characteristics of the respondents and the relationship between related phenomena, which is a tentative answer to the question.

4. Hypothesis: a proposition consisting of concepts (or variables), which is stated in a testable form and predicts the specific relationship between (or more than two) variables.

5. Concept: the product and basic unit of people's abstract thinking, an abstract noun that comprehensively summarizes the same kind of things or phenomena.

6. Variable: a type of concept, which is transformed through the definition and definition of the concept. It can also be said that it is the concretization of the concept, which reflects the variability of the concept in the specific form.

7. Correlation: an interactive and influential relationship. It shows that if the variable X changes and the variable Y changes, then it can be said that the two variables are related.

8. Causality: If the variable X changes, so does the variable Y. Otherwise, it can be said that X and Y have causality. Where x is the cause of y, y is the result of x, x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

9. nothingness relation: if there is no necessary connection between two variables, they are said to be irrelevant.

1. Proposition: a statement about one or more concepts (or variables).

11. Analysis unit: the points that researchers want to investigate, that is, the objects of investigation, which are the basic units for investigation and sampling.

12. Survey content: Make a survey item and survey index to understand, which involve the attributes and characteristics of various analysis units.

13. Hierarchical fallacy: Or ecological fallacy, it refers to using a high-level analysis unit to make an investigation, but using another low-level analysis unit to make a conclusion.

14. reductionism: or reductionism, in social research, it means that we are limited to analyzing and explaining various complex social phenomena with certain characteristics.

15. Operationalization: that is, the operation of research topics is to select (or formulate) survey indicators through the definition of abstract concepts, so as to transform abstract concepts into concrete observable variables and research hypotheses into concrete hypotheses.

16. abstract definition of a concept: use words to explain the connotation and extension of a concept in general, so as to distinguish a certain phenomenon referred to by the concept from other phenomena.

17. Operational definition of concept: According to the concept connotation and extension defined by abstract definition, some observable survey indicators or survey items are put forward to illustrate how to measure a concept.

18. survey indicators: one aspect of the concept connotation is only a sign, which indicates the phenomenon at the experience level.

19. Operationalization of assumptions: that is, the process from abstract assumptions to concrete assumptions.

2. Investigation scheme: A general plan and a feasible investigation outline are worked out through detailed and comprehensive consideration of the procedures and various problems in the implementation of a study.

measurement of social phenomena 1. measurement refers to assigning certain numbers and symbols to objects or events according to certain laws.

2. Social measurement: refers to the measurement of qualitative and quantitative differences between social phenomena in social investigation and research. It can also be regarded as an accurate and conscious observation of social phenomena.

3. Rule: The measurement rule is a unified standard for assigning numbers or symbols to the respondents. It is an index or operation method.

4. Classification scale: also known as category scale or nominal scale, it is a method to classify the respondents, label them with various names, and determine their categories. It is essentially a classification system.

5. Ordering scale: also known as rank scale or sequence scale, it is a scale that arranges the respondents in a certain logical order to determine their rank and order.

6. Fixed distance scale: also known as equidistant scale or interval scale, it is a method that can not only distinguish the categories and grades of variables (social phenomena), but also determine the quantitative differences and interval distances between variables.

7. scale: also known as proportional scale or equal scale, it is a method to measure the ratio or ratio relationship between different variables (social phenomena) in addition to all the properties of the above three scales.

8. Social indicators: or existing or advanced social statistical indicators, are means to measure and detect the quantitative relationship of social and economic development, and to study the present situation, mutual relationship and development trend of social and economic development factors. It has the ability to describe, evaluate and predict the future of social life.

9. Survey indicators: refers to the quantitative indicators and classification indicators used in specific surveys to measure or indicate an abstract concept.

1. Reliability: that is, reliability refers to the consistency or stability of the measurement results, and also refers to whether the measuring tool can measure the measured variables stably. In other words, the so-called reliability refers to the degree to which the results of repeated surveys or tests by the same or similar mother are consistent.

11. Reliability coefficient: that is, the correlation coefficient of two sets of data obtained from the same sample is used as the index to measure consistency. It can be explained that the proportion of the difference in the actual score of the measured object is determined by the difference of the measured object itself. A high reliability coefficient indicates a high degree of measurement consistency and a small measurement error.

12. Validity: refers to the accuracy of variables measured by measuring tools. In other words, validity refers to the validity of measurement, that is, the degree to which measuring tools can accurately, truly and objectively measure the attributes of things.

13. Content validity: it refers to measuring the suitability and conformity of the content, and it can also be said that it refers to measuring whether the selected topic meets the measurement purpose and requirements.

14. Criterion validity: refers to that when several different measurement methods or indicators are used to measure the same variable, one of them is taken as the criterion, and the other methods or indicators are compared with this criterion. If other methods or indicators have the same effect as the standard methods or indicators, then other methods and indicators have the standard effect.

15. construct validity: through the investigation of the measurement results of some theoretical concepts or substances, the measurement degree of theoretical construct is verified.

16. Empirical validity: that is, select people who have a better understanding of the relevant situation to identify the validity of the survey data.

sampling

1. Non-probabilistic sampling: it refers to a sampling method that makes a subjective and conscious choice among the population of research objects according to the requirements of the research task and the analysis of the survey objects.

2. Probabilistic sampling: refers to the sampling method that selects samples according to the probability theory and the random principle, without the subjective consciousness of the investigator at all.

3. sampling: a procedure and method for selecting the respondents, which can also be said to be a process represented by selecting a part of the population.

4. sample: this part is selected by sampling.

5. Representative: the so-called representative, that is to say, the extracted samples can reproduce the overall structure from the overall characteristics to be studied in the survey.

6. Individual: the basic unit for collecting information, that is, the analysis unit. An individual can be a certain type of person, or a family, organization, community, etc.

7. research population: a collection of individuals clearly defined in theory.

8. Survey population: the aggregate of individuals actually sampled by researchers.

9. sampling box: also called sampling category, it is a list of all sampling units that take samples.

1. Parameter value: a comprehensive description of a variable in the population.

11. Statistical value: a comprehensive description of a variable in the sample.

12. sampling error: the deviation in inferring the parameter value of the population with the statistical value of the sample. It is a standard to measure the representativeness of a sample.

13. Confidence level: refers to the probability that the overall parameter value falls within a certain interval of the sample statistical value.

14. Confidence interval: refers to the error range between the sample statistics and the overall parameters at a certain confidence level.

15. Simple random sampling: also known as pure random sampling, is the most basic probability sampling. It is to sample all individuals in the population by a specific method that completely conforms to the principle of randomness, that is, no grouping or arrangement is carried out during sampling, so that any individual in the population has the same equal opportunity to be sampled.

16. equidistant sampling: also called systematic sampling or mechanical sampling. It is a sampling method that first calculates the sampling interval K among the individuals arranged in a certain order, then draws one individual K from the first K individuals by simple random sampling, and then draws one individual from every K individuals starting from K. It is suitable for individuals with high homogeneity.

17. stratified random sampling: firstly, divide the population into several sub-populations according to one or several characteristics, and each sub-population is called a layer, then randomly select a sub-sample from each layer and combine these sub-samples.