I have just studied the Roman legal system recently. Let's start with the Roman system.

After the fall of Takvin, the proud king in 509 BC, the Romans chose * * * and the system as the new state power. Legend has it that the Roman nobles also discussed this issue, but in view of the lessons of the tyrant Tacven's autocracy, the Romans decided to give up the monarchy. This time it can be called a revolutionary act, in which civilians and nobles act together. Rome suffered a heavy blow in the process of transition to absolute monarchy, and both nobles and civilians put forward the demand for power. Then the establishment of a system in which aristocrats and civilians jointly govern the country is bound to receive universal support.

Never think that this struggle and its subsequent political changes are earth-shaking changes. The crux of the problem is that the power of the king has been dispersed and the traditional political model of Rome has not changed. Let's take a look at this newly established political system: the deliberation and highest decision-making power of the country are assigned to the Senate, which makes laws and decides to break diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and the appointment and removal of officials is decided by the highest decision-making power and the highest judicial power; The consul is divided into the executive power of the king and has the highest military command in wartime. Under certain conditions, the Senate will appoint a special consul-an autocrat to rule administrative and military affairs at will in wartime; Committee of 100, that is, a citizens' assembly that reflects public opinion, elects officials, decides major issues, and passes or vetoes major laws; The sacrificial group was given the power of the king as the highest priest, and its service object turned to the whole people. Therefore, although the struggle in 509 AD changed the political power, it was essentially the revolutionaries (nobles and civilians) who divided the power of the revolutionary object (king). Rome's political and social traditions have not changed, but as the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, it is undoubtedly of great significance to overthrow the king.

Next, I will introduce the political system of Rome at that time. In the next few hundred years, this political system will undergo great changes, but basically this basic structure will not change. Of course, the Senate is the most important government institution, the symbol and heart of the country. It holds the highest decision-making, legislative, diplomatic and appointment rights of the country. The early elders were basically aristocrats, and they attracted civilians through constant struggle. Of course, the lofty status of elders cannot be easily granted. At the beginning, the consul determined the elders every five years. Later, this power was given to the prosecutor. The famous old Cato and the famous young Cato were both prosecutors. In addition, the most important qualification for entering the Senate is that you must have served as a senior official of the country (financial officer and above, consul is of course the most qualified). Citizens with full democratic rights in Rome can wear purple-edged robes, so ordinary Presbyterians will wear purple-edged white robes to attend meetings, and some will wear red-brown leather boots and elder rings. A veteran who served as a consul, dictator and prosecutor before leaving office will have a higher status. They will have half-moon buttons on their robes and sit in better round-backed chairs.

The consul elects two consuls every year, but there are priorities. Their rights are basically limited to Rome. After Rome developed into an empire, the governor nominated by the Senate was responsible for the management of various places. The greatest authority of a consul is military authority, that is, the highest command in wartime. Of course, in non-wartime, the consul is also responsible for handling general government affairs, promulgating general administrative laws, presiding over national public activities, and presiding over meetings of committee of 100 and the Senate. They can interfere in the administration of all officials except prosecutors and tribunes. The consul is elected by the 100-member Congress for a term of one year, but there is no upper limit for re-election. In history, * * * and China's civilian leader Marius served as consuls eight times, but they were not re-elected. Generally speaking, the Romans were also worried about being re-elected as consuls too often. Like the United States before World War II, although there was no written code, too many re-elections were very rare in Roman history. In order to show the honor of the consul, when the consul travels, there will be a guard of honor of twelve people. They will use a bundle of sticks with axes to open the way. This kind of thing is called power mark, and of course there is a more famous name-fascism. Sticks can be executed with sticks and axes can be executed with the death penalty. The whole token symbolizes the authority of the consul. Some people think that the wooden stick symbolizes the Roman wall and the axe symbolizes the authority of the consul. Generally speaking, the consul has the highest power in Rome. Of course, some people think that the stick represents the authority of the consul. In short, fascism represents the authority of the consul. But when the consul presides over the citizens' meeting, the guard of honor must put down the stick to show respect for the citizens. As for the new meaning of fascism in recent decades, I won't go into it here.

Under very special circumstances (usually a very critical wartime state), the Senate will appoint a special consul-dictator/people's governor, nominated by the consul. Dictators have the highest power in wartime and can take all effective measures to safeguard national interests. In order to prevent the dictator from harming the national interests, the term of office of the dictator should not exceed six months. Of course, if it does not exceed,

The Congress of the Century is the highest electoral institution in Rome, with the highest voting power, decision-making power, appointment and removal power and special judicial power (death penalty can be tried). Rome's election is not equal universal suffrage, and Rome's six different grades (see the relevant description of the imperial era) have different electoral qualifications. The 100-member electoral system in Rome is somewhat similar to the electoral votes in the United States. The Roman army consists of different ranks of troops, and different ranks have different numbers of 100-member electoral systems, which constitute the basis for the division of 100-member electoral systems. The whole Roman freedmen * * * has the qualification of 193 hundred people, which is equivalent to 193 voter qualification. The 100-member qualification of these 193 is different in different grades. Generally speaking, there are more high-level 100-member groups than low-level ones, so the first two levels control more than half of the qualifications of 100-member groups during the election. Of course, on the whole, however, high-ranking citizens always take advantage of the 100-member group election. Later, the number of troops and citizens in Rome was no longer represented by193rd century. After the reform in Marius, the centennial system also lost its military significance, but the model of centennial congress continued.

The above is the basic political system of the Republic of China. Next, let's look at the Roman official system.

Roman officials are basically officials responsible for all kinds of government affairs under the consul, and the Praetor is responsible for judicial work; [〔quaestores〕] was responsible for the management of the Treasury (aerarium), and later for the payment of military salaries. The number of people increased with the expansion of Rome. The term of office of a prosecutor is 65,438+08 months. He investigates citizens' property records, determines the tax amount, examines the tax payment situation of the country, supervises the work of state officials, evaluates the national morality and the ruling level of officials, and counts the number of citizens. Every once in a while, he grades citizens according to property standards. Later, he increased his power to approve the qualification to enter the Senate. Prosecutors choose two at a time. Their evaluation of elders, citizens and officials has legal effect. The above-mentioned official positions are also the administrative organs of Rome. Later, with the development of Rome, the official system of Rome also changed, which we can see later.

Generally speaking, Rome's political system and official system are biased towards aristocrats. Low-level citizens in Rome with no salary and poor family have no right to be anonymous and have no money, so it is difficult for them to get their hands on public office. Wealthy civilians were also difficult to participate in political activities because nobles controlled state power, so a key issue in the early Roman Republic was the power struggle between civilians and nobles. Next we will see the centuries-long struggle between these two classes.

Military system

After the Romans stepped onto the historical stage, they began to appear as soldiers, and the ancestors who took the god of war as their nation embodied the spirit of the Romans. Since romulus, the first Roman monarch, the Romans have never stopped their foreign wars, and the Temple of God of War has been open all the time, with one exception-during the reign of King Noumé, the Temple of God of War was once closed, but only for a few decades. Later, King Lu Si and King Ankus were famous for their martial arts. As for several Truglia monarchs, most of them ruled the city-state in the war. After the Republic of China, wars with neighboring countries, Etruscans and even allies continued to occur. The Roman Republic has been developing and growing in a series of wars, among which, besides the martial spirit, it is a perfect military system that keeps the war winning.

The military system in the early years of the Republic of China basically belonged to the civilian military system commonly used in city-States. The so-called citizen soldier means that anyone with civil rights must bring his own weapons to join the army in wartime and take off his military uniform to engage in normal occupation at ordinary times, which is the so-called Roman practice. In wartime, citizens aged 17-60 have the obligation and right to fight as soldiers, among which citizens aged 17-60 have the right to fight as soldiers. Even so, Rome's criteria for recruiting soldiers from citizens are different, which is directly related to the rank of citizens-the number of immortals (hundred-member groups) required by the Roman army for different ranks is different. You may think this is unfair, but it is not. High-level citizens have more property and better weapons and equipment. Naturally, they can provide a large number of troops. The poor have limited financial resources, so the number of troops they can afford is limited. People without property naturally cannot join the army. Among the citizens in Rome, the citizens with the lowest rank have no property, so they are not qualified for a hundred-member group and have no position in the meeting of a hundred-member group. Citizens of the first rank provide 80 hundred-man regiments, which are the most well-equipped heavy infantry, including bronze helmets, breastplates and leggings, daggers and spears, Greek round shields and other equipment. In addition to infantry, the first level is also responsible for providing cavalry; The second level can have no breastplate and hold a Latin long shield; The third level can be without breastplate and leggings; The fourth level can transplant spears; The last stage can be used as a catapult. From here, we can easily see the necessity of grading.

At first, there were about 65,438+090 centurions, which could form four legions. The establishment is like this. A centurion (Sendulia) is led by a centurion, and there are hundreds of people. Two centurions formed a squadron (Manipur)-65,438+020-250 men, and three squadrons merged into a brigade (Goldt) as the largest military unit in Rome, and the legion existed until the destruction of Rome.

Roman legions are generally arranged in three rows, the first row is young soldiers, mainly javelin soldiers, the second row is the main force-mature soldiers, that is, heavy infantry, which is the core and main force of the whole army, and the third row is old soldiers, mainly reserve troops. In the battle, the Romans used a loose phalanx, generally 20 people wide and 6-7 people deep, giving soldiers sufficient space to play, leaving gaps between the phalanxes for replenishment at any time. The cavalry is divided into two roads, ready to assist the infantry at any time.

In actual combat, the young spearmen in the first row throw spears first. If the enemy is black and blue, the cavalry will go up and kill, and the infantry will clean up the battlefield. If it is not successful, the main heavy infantry will use the famous tortoise shell to fight against the enemy, and then the cavalry will attack the enemy, and the heavy infantry will continue to expand the results; If it still fails, the main force will make a final effort. If you still can't win, you should dispatch the reserve army-the reserve army must not be dispatched easily. The deployment of reserve troops is often a very critical moment. The Romans said, "It's time to send out the reserve army." In other words, when things come to a very troublesome moment, if even the reserve forces are lost, the battlefield will be irreparable.

Strict military organizations must be bound by strict military discipline. From this point of view, the Romans completely inherited the mantle of Sparta. On the battlefield, the commander-in-chief's orders are above everything else. Anyone who dares to offend his boss is a terrible thing, especially if he does not obey his orders, he will be severely punished. The decisions made by the supreme commander on the battlefield, even the Senate and the citizens' assembly, cannot be changed. In history, thousands of people (including a large number of elders and nobles) pleaded with a dictator for a condemned man. The punishment for deserters on the battlefield will be very severe. There is a so-called "one for one" method, which is to line up deserters and execute one for every ten people. If the sentry falls asleep while standing guard, he will be court-martialed. A military court composed of six officers will sentence him to death. At that time, the judge will set the deserter on fire with a wooden stick, and then the whole barracks will beat him with a stone wooden stick until he dies. If he escapes from the barracks unfortunately, he may be despised by the world, and even his relatives will be ashamed of him-the Romans value honor above life.

Strict military system and martial national character have shaped the extremely tenacious and fearless spiritual quality of the Romans. Roman soldiers on the battlefield will not hesitate to fight and kill even if they face several times their own strong enemies, because it is not terrible to sacrifice their lives compared with the harshness of military law and the loss of honor. If you are doomed to die, you have to choose between dying in the battlefield or military law and being scolded-this is often not so difficult to choose, so brave Romans always fight out of the battlefield with their heads held high, and the wound on their chests is undoubtedly a compliment.

The Romans attached great importance to war. When the Senate decides to go to war abroad, the sacrifices will throw spears at the land in the direction of the enemy. The first person who rushes to the enemy castle on the battlefield will be awarded the title of castle, the first person who rushes to the enemy warship will be awarded the title of warship, and citizens will be awarded the title of champion for their extraordinary courage. As for the commander-in-chief who won a great victory, the Senate will hold a triumph ceremony for him. The commander-in-chief and soldiers will enter the city in triumph, followed by prisoners and trophies, and the whole city will welcome him.

With such a military system and national spirit, the Romans are destined to grow from a weak city-state to the greatest empire, and it will take them hundreds of years to win victory, land and honor.