Joke Collection Website - Joke collection - Analog speakers that never disappear
Analog speakers that never disappear
The analog sound that will never disappear - from phonograph to LP turntable
From the invention of the phonograph by Edison in 1877 to the gradual discontinuation of LP turntables/records in 1982 after Sony/Philips announced the CD format , in the audio world's history of just over 100 years, the existence of analog turntables is enough to disdain any other audio and video signal source.
Looking back at the development history from gramophone to LP, and uncovering the mystery of the analog era, through this article, I hope to lead readers into the world of analog audio. When digital players such as iPods and MP3s are everywhere in front of us, let's appreciate the unique charm of analog audio!
Mary had a little lamb
"Mary had a little lamb, and the snowballs were like wool..."
This is from the inventor Thomas Edison (Thomas Edison) Edison). In 1877, Frenchman Charles Cros invited Edison to develop a device for him that could automatically record telegraph messages. After the trial production of the machine was completed, Edison took out a piece of tin foil and rolled it around a metal cylinder engraved with spiral grooves. One end of the stylus gently rubbed against the tin foil to rotate, and the other end was connected to the receiver. Then he cranked the crank and sang the "classic" aria from "Mary Had a Little Lamb..." into the receiver. When all was done, Edison put the stylus back in place, cranked the crank again, and the same sentence was restored in the machine.
Shortly thereafter, this machine, which Edison called the Phonograph (Greek for sound recorder), was officially born. At that time, they were only used to record speech, not what we call "audio" today. And Edison only realized this 10 years later.
The birth of Gramophne
Since the Phonograph must have spiral grooves carved longitudinally on the cylinder, it has the fatal disadvantage of being difficult to copy and the recording effect is not ideal. If we really want to talk about its benefits, it probably only has the dual function of being able to record and play. Therefore, in the early days, someone improved the Phonograph to make a simple Dictaphone recorder. The musician Bartok memorized it when collecting folk songs throughout Eastern Europe, and Brahms also used this cylinder recorder to record "Hungarian Dances".
In 1885, the Bell brothers and their colleague Charles Tainter changed the tinfoil cylinder into a waxed paper cylinder, applied for the patent of Graphophone, and established American two years later. Graphophone Campany (American Gramophone Company).
1887 can be said to be the first turning point in the history of the development of the phonograph. In addition to the founding of the AGC, Edison once again discovered the value of the Phonograph (before that, he had concentrated on the research of light bulbs), so the Edison Phonograph Company was born, which lasted until its bankruptcy in 1894. In addition, the German Emil Berliner conducted experiments on recording and playing sounds on wax-coated galvanized disks, and named the machine he invented Gramophon. Because Gramophon is practical and easy to copy, and uses a disc recording disc that is very close to the LP turntable in the future, some people think that he is the inventor of the phonograph. It was not until the second year that the phonograph was truly commercialized.
The origin of HMV
In 1890, coin-operated jukeboxes sprung up in the United States. For just $0.25, you can listen to comedy, jokes, whistles and brass music through a tube inserted in your ear. In 1894, the Columbia Phonograph Co. produced a spring-driven home phonograph that sold for only $40, creating an opportunity for phonographs to enter the home.
At the same time, singer Caruso (1902) and Russian bass Chaliapin (1903) successively participated in the recording of records, which not only opened up the demand for records, but also promoted the development of phonographs. sales.
At that time, the American Columbia Company and the French EMI Company used the Edison Phonograph; Bellina's disc record Gamophon later became Victor (Victory, usually also pronounced as "Victor"), and soon it was The oil painting "His Master's Voice" by British painter Francis Barraud was used as the logo and the name was changed to HMV. HMV is actually the ancestor of future famous record companies such as EMI (EMI), DG (Deutsche Grammophon), and RCA (Radio Corporation of America). HMV and puppy markings still appear on Japanese JVC products today. After the end of World War II, Germany, as a defeated country, changed the name of the then German Victory Company to DG. The Japanese Victory Company only used the Victor brand and logo domestically and renamed it JVC (Japan Victor Company) in overseas markets. This is why in the local second-hand market, sellers are accustomed to calling JVC the "dog head brand".
In 1925, Victor sold the phonograph invented by Bell Laboratories and equipped with an Exponential Hom under the trademark Victorla. Its most high-end model, Victorla, was snapped up by collectors in the 30s. Now, housewives should be happy because they no longer have to see a loudspeaker covered in dust in the living room.
Creating the era of electrical recording
In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the electronic tube, which made it possible to amplify electrical signals. Many people, including Bell Labs, have invested in research in this area. They discovered that sound can be turned into a current signal, using the electronic amplification of the tube to turn the tape recorder and burn the signal into a record. Compared with the previous mechanical recording (acoustic) where one had to play or roar into a large speaker, this is undoubtedly another major breakthrough.
On November 11, 1920, the British guests Guest and Merriman transmitted the live broadcast of the Armistice Day ceremony held at Westminster Abbey in London through a telephone line and recorded it in In a disk on a nearby tall building, this is the earliest experiment in electrical recording.
In 1925, two British and American Columbia companies adopted the research results of Bell Labs for commercial electrical recording. This year is therefore known as the "First Year of Electrical Recording". It is one of the milestones of the analog audio era along with the advent of LP records in 1948 and stereo records in 1957. The record at that time was called SP (Standard Play), which was made of shellac and dried asphalt powder. The speed was 78 rpm, and one side could only record 3 to 5 minutes of music. However, even with these many restrictions, in March 1925, Columbia Company moved the tape recorder into the Metropolitan Opera House in New York and recorded "The Son is Born Tonight" sung by more than 900 people. The magnificent effect laid the foundation for the electro The basis for successful recording.
While the quality of record recording has improved, playback equipment has also made significant progress. The drive of the turntable was changed from a clockwork to an electric motor, and tube amplification was used for replay. At this time, the record company turned its target to classical repertoire. In 1927, in order to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Beethoven's death, Columbia planned to record the complete collection of Beethoven's symphonies.
At the same time, the record company also underwent some integration: Victor took over RCA and became RCA/Victor (so the puppy logo can also be seen on the RCA Red Seal Studio series of records today); in 1931, HMV merged with British Columbia to form today's EMI ; German Graophon changed its name to Polydor (later PolyGram, today's Universal Records); a record company named after the portable gramophone Decca appeared, and today it is called "Fu Mao" (a sub-brand of Universal Records) in Taiwan one). Together with CBS (Columbia/Sony Records, CBS/SONY), which was later acquired by Sony, today's "big five" record companies had begun to take shape at that time.
The inventor's unique stubbornness accompanied the Great Depression of the United States in 1929, which caused Edison to completely withdraw from the field of phonographs. In the more than 10 years since then, there have been no fundamental breakthroughs in phonograph technology. On the contrary, recording equipment, such as microphones, have made considerable technical improvements, which will eventually promote the transition from phonographs to LPs. Moreover, the rise of talkies in the 1930s also led to the development of the audio industry, all of which we will break down in the next issue.
In 1883, Thorens, the world's earliest audio company, was born. The product at that time was a mechanical music box. In 1928, it began to produce special motors for turntables, thus unveiling its glorious history of more than half a century.
In 1893, at the American Exposition in Chicago, Edison publicly demonstrated Motion Picture for the first time, which is considered the prototype of sound movies.
In 1899, Baraud changed the cylinder in the oil painting "His Master'''s Voice" he created for Edison into a disk and sold it to Gamophon in Bellina. In June 1900, it officially became the trademark of Gamophon.
In August 1904, Columbia launched double-layer records in the United States for $1.50, making it possible for the ultra-low price to enter civilian households.
In 1918, Konosuke Matsushita established Matsushita Electric Manufacturing Co., Ltd. in Osaka. It did not start producing radios until 1931.
In 1918, Ortonfon was established in Denmark and began to produce turntables and MC cartridges after World War II.
In 1923, Western Electric experimented with synchronous playback of sound and film.
In 1925, Shure was established in the United States and was famous for its MM cartridge.
In 1927, Altec Lansing (Voice of Theater), a subsidiary of Western Electric, was established one after another along with Electro-Voice and JBL. They are both veterans of the American audio industry.
Wharfedale was established in Yorkshire in 1932 and is one of the oldest speaker manufacturers in the UK.
In 1939, the BBC began experimenting with stereo broadcasting.
For the entire 40 years after the 1930s, the development of analog audio entered its peak period. In addition to the first commercial electrical recording in 1925, two of the three landmark moments known as analog audio occurred in these 40 years: the advent of LP (Long Playing) records in 1948 meant that bakelite turntables were introduced in the modern sense. /The birth of the record; in 1957, the Recording Association of America decided to adopt 45/45 cutting technology as the standard format for stereo records, and it has been continued to this day.
Around the 1930s, phonograph technology developed to a certain extent. The original clockwork drive was changed to an electric motor, and tube amplification technology was also used. At this time, the record company turned its focus to classical music. In 1927, Columbia recorded the complete collection of Beethoven's symphonies to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Beethoven's death.
During this period, the record company also underwent some consolidation: Victor took over RCA and established RCA/Victor (so you can still see the puppy logo on the RCA Red Seal Studio series of records today); In 1931, HMV merged with British Columbia to form today's EMI; Germany's Graophon changed its name to Polydor (later Philips/Polygram, now acquired by Universal Music); a record company named after the portable gramophone Decca appeared, today It was known as "Fu Mao" in Taiwan (one of the sub-brands of Universal Music); together with CBS (Columbia/Sony Records), which was later acquired by Sony, the "Big Five" record companies of later generations had begun to take shape at that time.
The advent of the high-fidelity era
The so-called "flower blooms on two branches", with the deepening of electrical recording, microphones, amplifiers and other equipment have achieved breakthroughs in performance and technical indicators . Talkies after 1930 have begun to use multi-microphone recording, and the sound clarity and frequency response are much better than those of SP (Standard Play) records at the time. In this way, higher requirements are placed on record production equipment.
During World War II, in order to enable naval officers to distinguish the different motor sounds of British and German submarines, Asa Harty, then the technical director of Decca, took the lead in developing a monitor that could record high frequencies above 10kHz. This is what was later called "FFRR full frequency recording technology" (Full Frequercy Rang Recording). However, it was really applied to the recording industry in 1944, near the end of the war. You know, before the war, the frequency response of electrical recording was limited to the "poor" 100Hz ~ 500Hz. The FFRR 40Hz ~ 10kHz bandwidth almost covered the fundamental frequency band of all musical instruments, which was an amazing achievement at the time!
On December 22, 1944, just before Christmas, the first record produced with FFRR technology was released in the UK. Its emergence has plunged the entire industry into a new round of technology competition. Later, the long-used wax discs were replaced by acetate discs with less noise, and the use of heated recording needles significantly improved the sound quality of records. The tracking ability of home phonographs has become just right, and lightweight cartridges using gemstone needles have been modified...Similar improvements have gradually ushered in the era of High-Fidelity.
The birth of LP
The improvement of sound quality is one aspect, but it is unacceptable that 78 rpm SP records can only record 3 to 5 minutes of music.
In 1931, RCA tried to launch a 33 1/3 rpm LP (Long Playing) slow record, but it came to nothing. Later, Colombia also began a similar attempt. Not sure what the future of LP would be, Columbia was prepared to use both 78 rpm and 33 1/3 rpm wax plates for recording. As a result, the LP record experiment was successful in 1948, and Columbia became the biggest winner. This kind of record was originally recorded from 16 minutes per side and gradually increased to 22 minutes, just enough to accommodate most symphonies under 45 minutes.
Not to be outdone, RCA launched a 45-rpm EP (Extended Play) record the following year. The sound quality was equivalent to that of LP, and the recording time per side was about 5 minutes. Because the matching turntable is cheap and the duration is just right for popular music applications, it quickly opened up the market among young people.
After that, a 16 2/3 rpm super slow record came out, but it was quickly eliminated.
It is precisely for this reason that in later generations we can see three speed switches such as 78, 45, and 33 1/3 rpm on some turntables. Even the cartridges are divided into SP and LP. /EP two types. In 1953, the RIAA (Recording Engineers Association of America) determined that RCA's New Orthophonic equalization circuit would be the unified phono amplifier standard for LP, ending the situation of nearly 10 specifications being mixed together.
Most of the Phono ports we see on amplifiers today comply with this standard of the RIAA.
Revolutionary Stereo
In 1953, Decca made the first experimental stereo recording with the Mantovani Band at West Hampstead Studios. Three years later, it developed a method of recording two different signals in the same sound groove. However, the final 45/45 stereo recording mode was mastered by Americans, and that was in 1957.
The method used by the Americans is to draw two sound tracks in a 45-degree V-shape in the sound groove of the bakelite record to record the left and right channel signals respectively, and then inside the cartridge The coils are also designed to read at 45 degrees, ultimately producing a stereo effect. Compared with Decca's solution, although each has its own advantages, the former has been widely recognized because it is more convenient in recording records and assembling cartridges.
Talents emerged in large numbers, and LP began its golden years.
In 1956, RCA and Victor Japan began to produce 45/45 stereo records. However, the early stereo LP turntables were all professional products, mainly used by radio stations and other institutions. It was not until 1962 that Edgar Villchur, the founder of the air-cushion speaker, launched the first AR manual turntable for audiophiles. The shock-absorbing suspension system of the AR turntable was called "nothing to fear" back then. The hammer in the advertisement about to hit the AR turntable still impresses many people.
After the launch of stereo records, Ortofon had its representative product in MC cartridges - the SPU series. In 1995, Ortofon also built an MC Rohmannh cartridge wound with 6N pure silver wire to show off their technical achievements. The DL-103 cartridge launched by Denon in 1963 still has subsequent models in production. The Vl5 cartridge launched by Shure in 1964 has become a classic among MM cartridges.
Dynarc Balance Type tonearms became popular in the early days of stereo, and Grace released the G-240 SemiIntergrated Tome Arm in 1958. In 1959, British SME launched the Static Balance tonearm 3009 (short arm) and 3012 (long arm). Their excellent conceptual design and precise craftsmanship immediately changed the popular direction of tonearms. 3009 later became the first tonearm to be collected by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. In 1957, Thorens launched the world's first non-magnetic turntable, the TD124. In 1983, the TD126MK Ccentenial turntable launched to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the founding of the factory left a wonderful witness to the beautiful analog era.
At that time, Japanese manufacturers with strong learning ability began to emerge. YAMAHA's KT-1 turntable has received good reviews. The same goes for Neumann's studio turntables.
Facing the Digital Era
After that, the LP turntable ushered in its most glorious moment, but it also began to withdraw from the mainstream stage. Because digital technology is beginning to appear in front of us. In the next issue, we will let readers know.
Some other topics worthy of our attention during this period:
In 1940, Walt Disney produced the first stereo movie, Fantasia. 60 years later, Disney released the "Fantasia 2000" DVD to commemorate this historic moment.
In 1946, Tokyo Communications Co., Ltd. was established. Twelve years later, it launched the world's first transistor radio under the SONY brand.
In 1947, the world's first audio magazine "Audio" was launched. Once the best-selling audio magazine in the United States, it ceased publication at the beginning of this century.
In 1949, Harry Reizes held the world's first audio exhibition at the Hotel New Yorker.
In 1952, Harman Kardon was established. After acquiring companies such as JBL, Mark Levinson, Infinity, Lexion and AKG, it became the world's largest audio manufacturer.
In 1959, major record companies began releasing stereo records.
In 1963, Philips released the cassette tape at the International Audio Show in Berlin.
In 1965, Ray Dolby demonstrated its recording noise reduction device to Decca in London. This was the earliest Dolby noise reduction technology.
In 1969, Linn, famous for its production of LP turntables, was founded in the UK.
The last 30 years of the 20th century were extremely dramatic for the development of LP. During this period, it experienced a huge transition from peak to decline and then to near-death. The emergence of new technologies has enabled LP to show unprecedented rapid growth in terms of performance and popularity; however, some newer technologies, such as digital processing technology that has become a household name today, have appeared in front of us with stronger vitality. Their arrival heralds that LP will eventually bid farewell to the stage of history.
Picture 00 Stanton STR8-30, the leader among direct-drive LP turntables (picture description)
If we talk about the previous 40 years, the LP world was dominated by European and American manufacturers. Well, in the 1970s, the diligent and studious Japanese finally had the opportunity to come to the forefront. We have to lament how surprisingly similar the history is. In the past, when we talked about cameras, we might first think of Leica, but today, the world of digital cameras is controlled by most Japanese brands. In LP, or the entire history of audio, this scene is repeated again and again.
The Rise of the New Generation
In 1969, Japan's Panasonic (Technics) launched the first Direct Drive motor directly driven LP turntable SP-10. This caused a sensation in the LP world, which was still dominated by belt drives at the time. The innovative driving method solves a problem that has long troubled people, that is, the aging of the turntable belt with the increase of use time, and makes the LP turntable truly "retractable and retractable" for the first time: if you want it Turn and turn, stop and stop. In this way, it also provides a magic weapon for future generations of DJs who are keen on "djing" and remixing to show off their skills.
However, after replacing the belt drive, the direct-drive turntable soon followed the saying of "the wheel of feng shui turns around", and finally gave way to the belt that is generally recognized by audiophiles as having a "stronger musical flavor" transmission. Therefore, most of the direct-drive turntables handed down today are Japanese-made products, such as Sony TTS-4000, Denon DP-5000 and Micro DDX-1000.
However, it is precisely because of its lack of popularity that we have the opportunity to see a large number of direct-drive LP turntables on the second-hand market. For those junior players who still want to taste the taste of LP today, this cheap, easy-to-maintain and maintain direct-drive turntable has become the first choice.
In 1974, Japan's Victor began to use the phase servo method of crystal oscillators to stabilize the rotation speed of the turntable. This is the so-called "quartz locking" method. Later, manufacturers such as Sony also used this technology, thereby greatly improving the precision of the turntable.
The evolution of cartridges and tonearms
Except for the evolution of turntable driving methods, with the emergence of new materials around the 1970s, LP was in various aspects such as needles and tonearms. Constantly "evolving".
In 1973, Sony released a tone arm made of carbon fiber; Pioneer used beryllium to make the connecting rod of the stylus; Technics used Samarium-Coblt hybrid magnets to produce MM cartridges; today, Stax, which is famous for producing electrostatic headphones, launched the electrostatic cartridge CP-X; while Linn from the UK emphasized high-precision manufacturing processes and has been producing high-end LP turntables until now. It is these manufacturers that have made great contributions to the rapid popularity of LP.
At this time, the manufacturing of LP cartridges and tonearms was almost dominated by the Japanese.
Also in 1962, Asakura Shuu founded Supex. The following year, he launched the MC cartridge under the Ortofon brand. This time, he let the world appreciate the audio from Japan. aesthetics. In the same year, Hideo Matsushita founded Audio Technica, which later became the world's largest phono cartridge manufacturer. The AT-l was Japan's first MM phono cartridge, and the subsequent AT-35 (VM-style phono cartridge) head, 1967) and AT-34 (the first dual moving coil MC cartridge, 1977) are both very classic works.
"One Person" Cartridge
In 1977, with the opening of Grado's patent on MC cartridges, more Japanese-made MC cartridges appeared, including various There are few "one-person" companies, and Hi-End Audio's "nicheness" is taken to the extreme here! For example, the Win tension measuring cartridge, which is made only to customer orders, the Miyabi, which is made of ivory, the Argant, which is inlaid with sapphires, and the Goldbug, which uses briar roots to make Mr. Brier cartridges, have brought great success to audiophiles. More fun.
Nabori Tominari, another Tokyo Technical School graduate, manufactures MC cartridges from a technical point of view and sells them under the Dvnavector brand. He is completely different from Koetsu, but still attracts some followers.
At that time, the Koetsu cartridge pioneered by Kanno Yoshinobu became the ultimate goal in everyone's eyes. Not only was this man proficient in classical music and oil painting, he was also an imperial swordsmith. Even the sword of the Emperor of Japan was forged by him himself. The versatile man designed and manufactured the phono head himself out of dissatisfaction with the products on the market. At first, it was only for personal use or as a gift to relatives and friends. It did not become famous until it was sold in the United States in 1978. His emphasis on traditional skills and his own mysterious atmosphere make enthusiasts crazy about it. Nabori Tominari, another Tokyo Technical School graduate, manufactured MC cartridges from a technical point of view and sold them under the Dvnavector brand. He was completely different from Koetsu, but he also attracted a group of followers.
The digital age is coming
Now, we can talk about Philips. It started out as a light bulb and had a history of 80 years by then.
In 1969, Philips took the lead in proposing the idea of ??laser discs. Five years later, the prototype of laser discs appeared. In 1979, it teamed up with Sony to begin the development of Compact Disc (CD). When Panasonic Electric joined the CD camp in 1981, the war between CD and LP officially started.
In fact, in the 1970s, sound engineers had already begun experimenting with digital recording. This technology called PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) was the encoding method of CD later.
In 1972, the BBC trialled digital equipment in FM broadcasting. During the same period, NHK transferred PCM technology to Denon. On April 24 of that year, Denon recorded Mozart's String Quartet No. 15 performed by the Schmerdonald String Quartet at the TwerHall Concert Hall in Aoyama, Tokyo. This recording was later released as an LP. Now we should understand why we see the word Digital on those LP records released later.
In addition to indicating that this is achieved through digital recording technology, from a certain perspective, it also means that LP, synonymous with analog audio, is about to sunset.
On New Year's Day 1979, Decca recorded Boskovsky's New Year's Concert of the Vienna Philharmonic in Vienna. This was the first PCM recording by a British record company. What is more historically significant is that this recording was made into a CD record in the 1980s, which was also the world's earliest DDD production (that is, a CD record using digital recording, digital mixing and digital production).
LP Defense
Although CDs encountered many difficulties at the beginning of their launch, including being criticized as having "rough sound" and "lack of musical taste" (this statement remains to this day) still exists), but its impact on LP is huge.
Soon, the LP defense battle began.
In 1982, when PolyGram's CD pressing plant in Hamburg was officially put into operation, Highphone, composed of former Denon employees, was established in Japan.
Two years later, Ebi Zeche founded Roundale Research. Ikeda Isamu, who once worked at Fudelity-Research, the earliest MC cartridge manufacturer in Japan, founded Ikeda Company and released the Ikeda 9 cartridge, which was called the "Dream Ultimate cartridge" and was regarded as a step forward in analog audio after entering the digital era. Big progress.
In Europe and the United States, Goldmund (1984, Switzerland), Roksan (1985, UK), VPI (USA), Graham Engineering (1986, USA), Wilsonbenesch (1989, UK) and Immedia (1989, UK) 1990) is also a supporter of analog audio in the digital era.
In the 1990s, LP finally disappeared from the public level. CD and tape recordings dominate, and a variety of new formats are emerging. During that period, "Digital" had been deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. Except for the LP used by DJs in dance halls, it no longer appeared in the homes of ordinary people. The complete discontinuation of LP records has caused this trend to spread rapidly.
What is interesting, however, is that in the 21st century, with the emergence of SACD and DVD-Audio, two records known as the next generation of audio formats, people seem to have returned to the past. "Having the perfect sound quality only found in LP" has become the best compliment for SACD. We see more and more demonstrations using LP as the audio source at audio exhibitions. Those old manufacturers that have not launched LP turntables for a long time are also full of dust. The molds and drawings were rediscovered in the warehouse, and record companies such as Opus have also restarted the release of LP records. All of this seems to be telling the immortal myth of LP, even if they are only spread among a very small number of audiophiles. .
Some other topics worthy of our attention during this period:
In 1967, "Stereo Sound" magazine was founded in Japan. "Stereo Sound", which focuses on Hi-End audio, and "Hi Vi", which focuses on home theater, also have Chinese versions released today.
In 1970, EV proposed the 4-channel matrix LP record format.
In 1972, Japan's Sansui launched the QS matrix record, which was the earliest attempt at LP surround sound.
Established in 1972 by Mark Levinson, it set a new standard for modern transistor amplifiers. 12 years later, Mark changed hands and founded Cello, and then changed hands again and founded Red Rose.
In 1975, Meridian (British Treasure) was founded. Today it has become one of the leaders in digital audio.
In 1977, TEAC released the prototype of the DAD turntable, which made great contributions to the birth of the CD.
In 1982, CD was officially launched and the DAT prototype was born.
The latter was unprecedentedly blocked by record dealers due to its nearly "perfect" digital recording, and eventually withdrew from the home market.
In 1984, PolyGram’s CD pressing factory produced the 10 millionth CD record.
In 1991, in order to compete with Philips' digital recorder DCC, Sony launched MD, but it did not really start to be accepted by people until 6 years later.
In 1997, DVD was born.
- Previous article:Looking for answers in English translation
- Next article:Qing Dynasty Pu Songling's "A certain person in Zhucheng"
- Related articles
- The pilot of Sichuan Airlines passenger plane released racial hate speech. Why did he do it?
- Who got along well with Wei Yun and Jing Li after leaving Deyun Society?
- Central affairs
- Humorous joke: My boyfriend invited some friends to play mahjong at home.
- Good morning greetings humorous jokes
- My dad's kidding.
- What are the characteristics of historical drama?
- Why didn't Li Yucheng accompany Ma Yuqin when she was sick?
- Ten years later, the woman crossed over and the man majored in Buddhist novels.
- Find ten obscure jokes?