Is there any evidence of evolution?

Darwin's theory of evolution was established 140 years ago. At the beginning of its birth, it was proposed as a hypothesis. There is no fossil evidence except Darwin's own observation of some plants and animals. When Darwin talked about fossils in the Origin of Species, the title was "Incomplete Geological Records". He admitted that the fossil research at that time found no evidence of transitional types between species, and pointed out that this may be the most easily tested and fatal reason for anti-evolution. He saw the congenital defects of the theory of evolution, and hoped that future generations could verify it. But today, it has evolved into an axiom; A belief; Even a religion. We can't discuss, let alone criticize, but accept unconditionally, otherwise we will be ruthlessly besieged and even labeled as "pseudoscience" and "anti-science", which will ruin our research prospects. Today, there are no papers in any biology magazine that question evolution. In the early 1980s, Scott and Cole searched more than 4,000 academic journals at that time, and found no papers opposing evolution, nor did they find any papers questioning evolution in 68 academic journals related to biological origin. GEORGE W. GILCHRIST investigated 1997 the data indexes of five major journals in the world, and found no anti-evolution or non-evolution papers. Evolutionists proudly claim that evolution has won a decisive victory over creationism. It seems that the rationality and self-evident of evolution theory have been proved again.

Is that really the case? Is evolution the absolute truth? In fact, SCOTT and COLE's work also found that135,000 papers submitted in 1985 were anti-evolutionary and non-evolutionary. All the 18 papers were rejected for publication. Evolution is not invulnerable, but its defenders do not allow any challenge to it. This gives people the impression that the theory of evolution is not based on the scientific perfection of its own theory, but on the beliefs of many admirers. Evolution is not an "empirical science" in the sense of karl popper, but a mixture of hypotheses, beliefs and imperfect evidence.

In fact, what we found in scientific research today is enough to make people reconsider the correctness of evolution. However, these facts are either avoided or erased. Driven by the mode of thinking, people consciously or unconsciously become the guardians of popular theories and lose the ability to think independently. This is inconsistent with the rational scientific spirit. Real scientists should face up to the defects of the old theory and the challenges it faces, and dare to get rid of the shackles. Only in this way can science advance and mankind advance.

In the Origin of Species, Darwin explained that Lamarck, a pioneer of evolution and an outstanding French naturalist, was a French biologist and one of the founders of modern evolution. His main works are Flora of France and Philosophy of Animals. As a contribution to the theory of evolution, "his contribution is enormous, and he is the first person to make people realize the possibility of a hypothesis, that is, all variations in organic and inorganic fields occur according to the laws of nature rather than due to God's intervention". We also see Lenin saying in summing up the significance of Darwin's theory of evolution: "Darwin's works finally drove God away from nature, and biological science stood up." These discourses first show the role of evolution in antagonistic theology.

In western society, since the Renaissance, natural science has been encouraged by Copernicus "Heliocentrism" and developed rapidly. By the18th century, astronomy, mathematics, physics and mechanics had been liberated from the rule of theology, but biology was still imprisoned in theology. Theological worldview is embodied in biology as species creationism and species invariance. These two views hold that God is the Creator, all living things are created by God, and all living things on earth get eternal structure and functions from the Creator, including living habits. Obviously, the so-called species creation theory and species invariance are essentially the Christian Bible moved to natural science. At that time, biological science could only be the annotation of the Bible, and it was a "handmaid of theology". In such an unquestionable social trend of thought, how did evolutionary thought occupy the minds of a group of scientists such as Lamarck and Darwin? We know that since the end of 18, not only Lamarck and Darwin, but also a group of natural scientists have established the idea of evolution. Among them, outstanding representatives are Buffon, a French scientist, Saint-Tyrell, a French zoologist (1772-1844), a French animal anatomist and embryologist, and one of the pioneers of modern evolution. Professor of Vertebrate Zoology, Paris Museum of History. His main works are Anatomy Philosophy. British naturalist and poet Erasmus Darwin (Darwin's grandfather), British natural scientist Wallace, German botanist Karl Nicholas Floras (1810/875), Russian zoologist Lurui (1814). Where does the power that drives so many natural scientists out of theological bondage come from?

Look at the process of evolutionary ideas sprouting in their minds, and we can be clear. For example, erasmus Darwin, Darwin's grandfather, once said, "The deformation of animals, such as the change from tadpoles to frogs, … artificial changes, such as new breeds of horses, dogs and sheep, … changes caused by climate and seasonal conditions, … all warm-blooded animals are basically the same in structure, … so that we can't be sure that they are all produced by the same life fiber." This shows that the fact that the species has changed under the conditions of artificial cultivation and the action of different external environments has inspired his idea of species change. Take Karl Fraser of Germany as an example. Marx praised him as "a Darwinist before Darwin". 1847 published the book History of Climate and Plants in Different Periods. In the book, he compared the descriptions of plant morphology and ecology by ancient Greek writers with his field trips in Persia and Egypt in the 1930s, and concluded that "the belief in the invariance of plant species has also been shaken by us, and we even pointed out that this is caused by nature". It is not difficult to understand that it is the direct contact with natural facts that leads him to abandon the theological views of species invariance and species creation.

As we know, among the pioneers of evolution, Lamarck and Darwin received theological education directly, and may take clergy as their lifelong career. Lamarck's parents wanted him to be a priest, so he entered a missionary school in middle school and was influenced by theology for several years. Darwin graduated from the theological seminary of Cambridge University with a degree and qualification as a priest. However, it is precisely the two of them who have dealt a heavy blow to the creationism and invariance of species. The indoctrination of theological concepts did not stop the germination of evolutionary ideas in their minds, and the fundamental reason was precisely that they observed the facts of nature. Lamarck once summed up this problem in one sentence. He said: "The observed materials have clearly proved the absurdity of the theory of species invariance." As for Darwin, the revelation of nature to him is even more obvious. We might as well say a few more words. 1935 In order to commemorate the centenary of Darwin's expedition to the Galapagos Islands, the Ecuadorian government set up a monument to Darwin. The inscription reads: "Charles Darwin landed in the Galapagos Islands in 1835. When he studied the distribution of local animals and plants, he first considered the issue of biological evolution and began the ideological revolution of this unresolved topic. " Darwin wrote in his diary at that time that these islands were "surrounded by new birds, new reptiles, new mollusks, new insects and new plants …". Why do the indigenous creatures on these islands have different contact ratios with the creatures on the mainland, and they work in different ways, regardless of species or quantity? Why are they also created according to the biological organization form of the United States? ""In the modern period of geological history, it is still an empty ocean. Therefore, whether in space or in time, we seem to come to an opinion that is slightly close to that huge fact, and this is the secret of all secrets: the problem of the first appearance of new creatures on earth. "Darwin thought that all his thoughts originated in the Galapagos Islands. Regarding the whole inspection life of Beagle, he recalled, "Beagle travel is the most important thing in my life, which determines my whole career in the future." "Here's an episode that can illustrate the enlightenment of natural facts to Darwin. Before the voyage of Beagle, Hans Rowe, a professor of botany at Cambridge University, whom Darwin admired very much, suggested that Darwin translate the geologist Ryle (1797- 1875) into "Ryle", a British geologist and the founder of geology. He advocated the theory of geological gradual change, and his main work, Principles of Geology, marked the maturity of classical geology. The book Principles of Geology is with you, saying, "You must take Ryle's new book with you on this trip and read it at any time, because it is very interesting, but you must not pay attention to it except the facts it records, because its theory is ridiculous to the extreme. "It turns out that Ryle explained in his book that the earth's strata are changing slowly, and the changes in the surface environment make the creatures change gradually. Ryle's theory is a criticism of the dominant "catastrophe theory" at that time, and Hanslow is convinced of it. Darwin read the book carefully on the way. At the beginning of the journey, he believed that "creatures were created according to God's plan"-during the journey, he had answered such questions raised by officers. However, when he just visited the first place-Santiago Island in Cape Verde, he found that the deeper the stratum, the simpler the structure of biological fossils. The shallower the strata, the more complex the fossils. Isn't the evolution of organisms recorded in the history of stratigraphic development? In the face of facts, Darwin had to be conquered by Ryle's theory. Therefore, he wrote, "This survey has convinced me that Ryle's views are far superior to those advocated in any other works I know. "

In a word, observing, collecting and analyzing the facts of nature is the primary factor in the germination of evolutionary thought. At the same time, we know that it is these objective facts that have given generations of natural scientists firm beliefs and made them put forward the viewpoint of biological evolution regardless of the persecution of religious forces and the discrimination and attack of social ignorance forces. Similarly, it is relying on a large number of facts that evolution has won success. Today you can clearly see that no matter how people explain the reasons for evolution, no matter how evolution may change its form, the fact of biological evolution in nature can never be erased.

Sublimation of theory

Human reason is never satisfied with "knowing what it is", but always figuring out "why it is what it is", so any scientific theory can't stay on the description of empirical facts, and must make a reasonable explanation for why the facts happen like this. In fact, many years before Darwin, people discovered the fact of biological evolution and put forward the idea of biological evolution. Engels pointed out: "Carver Wolff [Carver Wolff (1733- 1794)] is a German embryologist. He observed the embryonic development of chicken in detail, and proved that the blood vessels of chicken were gradually formed, which provided favorable evidence for the "evolution theory" of various biological organs. The main work is Genesis published in 1759. 1759 attacked species invariance for the first time and published the provenance theory. But what he foresaw was nothing more than a genius and a German natural philosopher Okun (1779- 185 1). It is believed that man is the epitome of the whole universe and the peak of the development of nature, and the spiritual law has something in common with the natural law. Lamarck and Bell (1792-1876)) were also translated into von bell, a German-born Russian biologist, anthropologist and geographer, the founder of comparative embryology. The greatest contribution was the discovery of mammalian eggs in 1827. The main book "History of Animal Occurrence-Observation and Thinking" points out that all vertebrate embryos are similar to some extent, and the closer the relationship, the greater the similarity. In the process of development, the characteristics of phylum first appeared, followed by the characteristics of class, order, family, genus and species. This was later called "Bell's Law" in embryology. There is a definite form, and it took a whole hundred years, that is, 1859, before Darwin successfully completed it. " So, why did evolution blossom and bear fruit in Darwin's hands? One of the most important reasons is that he provided a reasonable explanation and correctly expounded the mechanism of biological evolution in theory.

Species evolution is a fact. What is the reason for evolution? Why do species mutate? Why do species evolve from simple to complex, from low to high? Before Darwin, some evolutionists tried to answer this question, but their answers were either far-fetched or far-fetched. Darwin summed up and sublated the predecessors' theories and paid attention to absorbing nutrition from the academic thoughts of other disciplines. After years of hard exploration and intense thinking, he put forward the theory of natural selection to explain the fact of biological evolution. The theory of natural selection mainly includes the following three harmonious and unified contents:

(1) On struggle for existence. The contradiction between excessive reproduction and limited living conditions is one of the external causes of species extinction on earth.

(2) Genetic variation theory. Although the mechanism of variation is not clear, it is undeniable that variation is universal, and Darwin used variation to explain the internal reasons of species evolution.

(3) The theory of survival of the fittest. Living conditions have been changing. If the variation of species adapts to the changing environment, then it will win and develop in struggle for existence. If the variation of a species is not suitable for its living conditions at that time, it is easy to decline or perish.

In this way, Darwin roughly described the mechanism of biological evolution for us based on the facts and contradictions of nature itself, and all kinds of key questions have reasonable and factual answers here. How did new species emerge? Because old species mutate. Why are many species extinct? Because they can't stand the pressure of survival competition. Why is the relationship between biology and environment so harmonious? Because some of the many variations are just in line with environmental choices. As for why lower types of organisms exist everywhere, Darwin wrote: "This is not difficult to understand, because natural selection, that is, survival of the fittest, does not necessarily include gradual development-natural selection only uses those mutations that are beneficial to organisms in complex life relationships."

Here, it should be pointed out that Darwin can skillfully use facts when demonstrating his own views, which is worth learning. Unlike Lamarck, he didn't base his theory on speculation. Does this mean that Darwin answered all the questions with facts? No, his ability to skillfully use facts lies in: on the one hand, when he can't provide the mechanism of how facts happen, he claims that current science can't solve the mystery of facts; At the same time, he used a lot of materials to prove that this is a fact. In this way, although there is no explanation of "why", it is easy for everyone to believe that what he said is in line with the facts. For example, Darwin could not give a reasonable explanation for the mechanism of mutation and heredity. He admitted: "We are deeply ignorant of the law of catastrophe. We can put forward the reason why any part or that part has mutated, less than one in a hundred cases. " Regarding heredity, he said: "The law of heredity is incredible, which is a matter of science in the future." If you can't answer yourself, you won't guess and draw conclusions easily, so as not to make uncertain guesses and reduce the reliability of the theory. However, the facts of variation and heredity are objective and cannot be erased, so Darwin put a wealth of materials in front of readers, which makes people unbelievable and hopes that future science will explore the reasons. On the other hand, when explaining the causes of facts and expounding his theory, he tried to collect research results from various fields and disciplines to support his views, which undoubtedly increased the credibility of the new theory. Look at the book Origin of Species published by him 1859. Its rich and informative information, between the lines. It is not difficult to imagine Darwin's profound skill and good intention in controlling facts.

Darwin's scientific temperament

Darwin talked about the help of two kinds of temperament when he reviewed his life path.

The first is "safeguarding freedom of thought". In 188 1, he told people that he followed the principle of doing scholarly research: "I have made firm efforts to keep my thoughts free, so that once the facts prove that these assumptions are not in line with the facts, I lose my favorite assumptions (and I can't object to setting a hypothesis for every question), and there is no other way." Considering the influence of religious social habits and theology at that time and the difficulty of studying evolution itself, we can realize that "maintaining freedom of thought" is particularly meaningful to Darwin.

"Keeping freedom of thought" is embodied in Darwin's skepticism, complacency and conservatism.

Needless to say, his theory of evolution was a rebellion against religious theology at that time and a product of bold doubt.

The two most grateful and respected mentors in his life are Hanslow and Ryle. He accepts the guidance of his tutor seriously, but this does not prevent him from keeping his own style and thinking. For example, Hanslow thinks that the motion of entangled plants is due to their natural tendency of spiral growth, but Darwin put forward according to his observation of climbing plants cultivated in greenhouses: "The motion of tendrils or climbing plants is adapted to the living environment, and it is beneficial to survival and growth in order to obtain more sunshine and more air. Otherwise, they can hardly survive. " For another example, Ryle put forward the crater theory about the formation of coral reefs. People believe in Ryle, and no one doubts it. But Darwin raised a question based on his own observation: "The new facts don't seem to be like what Ryle said." He believes that the formation of coral reefs is not necessarily related to volcanoes, but is built by corals for many years.

Later, he himself became an authority, but this did not make him conservative and cautious, but he was still full of doubt and enterprising spirit. On one occasion, he read the book "blood relatives" just published. The author quoted an experimental data published by a Belgian scholar in the authoritative magazine Proceedings of the Royal Belgian Society: inbred rabbits have been mated for generations without any harmful consequences. People are used to not doubting articles in authoritative newspapers. But Darwin thought that the experimental report was untenable, so he wrote to the magazine, put forward his own views and asked if the experiment was true. Sure enough, he got a reply soon, and the experimental report was forged.

Darwin never claimed to be a great man, and he knew the value of modesty to science. Therefore, he can't accept any way to flatter himself and belittle others. In the face of other people's behavior, he will tell you bluntly: "Oppose the great importance you have given us;" I used to think that second, third and fourth-rate people were extremely important, at least for scientists. "

He never sticks to his theory, but thinks repeatedly. As for the genetic mechanism, he once put forward the "theory of pangenesis" hypothesis, that is, a particle named "Ubiquitous" is exported from various parts of the body and aggregated to the germ cells to explain the changes in the body, that is, acquired traits are passed on to future generations. After this hypothesis was published, some scholars raised objections, and Darwin paid attention to these criticisms. For example, when criticizing Italian botanist Federico Delbino (1833 1905), he said: "He opposed this hypothesis, but criticized it fairly; I found his criticism very useful. " Since then, they have often corresponded and discussed botany. It is also on the basis of seriously considering the criticism that Darwin deleted the discussion on the theory of the ubiquitous hypothesis in the sixth edition of the Origin of Species. From this fact, we can get a glimpse of his modest and rigorous academic attitude. Of course, from the fact that he compiled the Draft on the Origin of Species in 1842 and didn't publish the book on the Origin of Species until 1859, we can better appreciate the "depth" of his "insatiable thinking".

Darwin's second important quality is his observation ability. This seems to be the only thing he is so confident about. He said: "I have neither outstanding understanding nor extraordinary wit, but I may be above others in my ability to detect fleeting things and observe them carefully." There is no doubt about it. From the description of the ecological habits of animals and plants in many of his published works, and from his comparison of the subtle differences in morphological structure between species and varieties, we cannot but admire his observation ability. Of course, the importance of this quality to Darwin is not difficult to understand. For every naturalist and evolutionist at that time, careful observation was the first and minimum condition to enter the research. In Darwin's view, this is really a clever adaptation of personal ability and work needs.

Darwin also said that another important quality that scientists should possess is interest, that is, interest in exploring the mysteries of nature. It was this interest that made Darwin keen on collecting specimens, traveling, hunting and studying chemistry with his brother in his childhood and adolescence. He is not interested in his lessons, so his grades are not good. In his autobiography, he said: "The school is an empty place for my education." It was this interest that caused him to be absent-minded when studying medicine at Edinburgh University. Later, he transferred to the Department of Theology in Cambridge to study theology. While learning a lot of knowledge about geology, botany and zoology from biology professors and geology professors such as Hanslow, he also participated in academic investigations on plants and geology. It is this interest that makes him not want to be a priest. Although he graduated from the Department of Theology, he would rather take part in the arduous global investigation. It is this interest that makes him study tirelessly in the second half of his life regardless of illness. Interest has given the Master of Science a steady stream of motivation and inspired their enthusiasm for selfless work.

In his autobiography, Darwin summed up his life struggling to establish the theory of evolution. "The most important thing is that he loves science-never tired of thinking-diligent in observing and collecting information-and has considerable invention ability and common sense." Isn't Darwin's experience worth pondering?

1858 1 In July, Darwin and Wallace respectively read their papers on the origin of species in linnean society of london, and the scientific theory of evolution was born. From 65438 to 0859, Darwin published the Origin of Species and became the founder of the theory of evolution. Evolutionary theory fundamentally denies the traditional concepts of creationism and species invariance, and has exerted great influence in philosophy, sociology, ethics, economics and other fields.

This paper introduces in detail the ideological process of the germination, emergence, development and establishment of Darwin's theory of evolution, reveals the mystery of his success from Darwin's own scientific temperament, and highly evaluates the outstanding contributions of Darwin and his book The Origin of Species in human history. When reading, you can refer to Introduction to the Origin of Species to deepen your understanding of evolution and introduction.