Why did Engels say that the Renaissance was a period when giants were needed and produced?

Three Issues on "Giant" in Renaissance

War Tiger

From13rd century to16th century, Europe experienced the greatest and most progressive change in human history-Renaissance. It is an ideological emancipation movement in Europe from medieval feudal society to modern capitalist society. Engels pointed out in Introduction to Dialectics of Nature: "This is an era when giants are needed and produced-giants in thinking ability, enthusiasm and personality, giants in versatility and erudition." This paper attempts to discuss some problems about giants from three difficulties, which may deepen our correct understanding of giants in the Renaissance.

First, the spiritual sublation of medieval culture.

The main contribution of humanist thinkers and doers in the Renaissance is to inherit and carry forward the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, but we can't ignore their sublation spirit of medieval culture. When we examine a problem, we should not only see the leading factors of the development of things, but also see its various factors. History is a continuous river, and each historical development stage has its rationality. Although slave society was barbaric, it was a great progress for primitive society. The Middle Ages were dark, but there were also shining stars in the Middle Ages. At least, in the womb of medieval mothers, a fetus of a new era was born. Everything is opposite and complementary. Lenin put forward the idea of "two national cultures" long ago, and so did medieval culture, which included Christian culture and secular culture. There is no doubt that secular culture has a strong people's character, and Christian culture also shows the brilliance that old ideas can't hide.

American scholar Sidney finkelstein pointed out: "Before discussing the art of the Middle Ages or the' Dark Ages' in Europe, we must remember that the word' Dark Ages' itself reflects the narrowness of a typical' Western culture'. ..... When' darkness' landed in Europe, Byzantium and the Islamic world preserved the art, science and philosophy of ancient Greece. " The so-called dark middle ages generally refers to its early stage, that is, the stage before 10 century, when Christian thought seriously ruled people and formed universal ignorance. 1 1 After the century, due to the repeated crusades of the Crusaders and the gradual opening of the Oriental trade routes, oriental culture brought fresh ideas to Europe. By the "Gothic" period of 13 and 14 centuries, literature and art had clearly revealed the clues of realism and planted the seeds that would be open to the Renaissance and the national culture of later generations. Of course, Gothic architecture shows a religious mystery. Its spire leads the eyes of the small world to heaven, which promotes the soaring of people's souls, but at the same time makes people feel noble and clear. These Gothic buildings have a high level of artistry and engineering technology, and have got rid of the control of church thought to some extent. In addition to religious themes, there are also some secular figures, daily life scenes and folk stories in Gothic sculpture, which not only laid a solid foundation for later Renaissance art, but also provided nutrition for later artists (such as Rodin). Gothic novels popular in the Middle Ages became the legacy of romantic literature. Medieval folk songs and dances provided rich materials for the emergence of Italian, French and German operas and the rise of Protestant music and early instrumental suites and concertos, because the spread of Christian culture was deeply rooted in classical culture. Although it hated ancient Greek and Roman cultures, it was inevitably adversely affected by this culture. Byzantine art, which appeared in the Eastern Roman Empire in the Middle Ages, is another system of Christian culture. Because it has not been invaded by foreigners, it has preserved more ancient culture; Because it is in the intermediary position between the west and the east, it has been more influenced by the eastern culture, thus showing its prosperity and vitality. 1453, the Eastern Roman Empire collapsed after the Turkish attack, and a large number of scholars fled to Europe with ancient Greek and Roman cultural classics, and Byzantine artistic achievements also spread in all directions. There are many "exquisite paintings" in the manuscript, which often have sharp satire and secularity, reflecting the people's nature and realistic spirit of Byzantine art. As Engels described it: "The manuscripts rescued from the demise of Byzantine occupation and the ancient statues excavated from the ruins of Rome opened a new world-ancient Greece in front of the surprised west;" In front of its glorious image, the ghost of the Middle Ages disappeared ... "

In the inheritance of ancient Greek cultural heritage, humanism has a remarkable feature, that is, it has to take religion as the cloak of new ideology and pay attention to absorbing reasonable factors from Christian culture. On the one hand, bourgeois humanists have many clergy, some of whom are even secretaries of bishops, cardinals or popes. Lorenzo Valla, for example, is a famous historian, linguist, translator and philosopher. He served as the secretary of Pope Nicholas Martin Luther, a religious reformer who "cleared Augias's bull pen" and a professor of theology at wittenberg University. Roger bacon, a scientist and philosopher, is an English monk, wycliffe, a religious reformer, is a professor of English theology, and Bruno, a natural philosopher, is a priest. On the other hand, there are also many people who pay more attention to the accumulation of cultural heritage and realistic literary and artistic activities within the feudal aristocracy and monks. /kloc-In the 5th century, Pope Nicholas V actively supported cultural and academic activities, personally sent people to collect Latin and Greek manuscripts, and established a compilation center in the Vatican to reward Italian scholars for their academic research and translation work. It is said that during the eight years of Nicholas V's reign, more classic works were translated than in the past 500 years. This fashion of the times embodies the progress of history.

This trend of the times has also influenced humanist writers and artists. Dante, the Italian poet who initiated Renaissance literature, is not only a critic of medieval Christian literature, but also his successor. His immortal poem The Divine Comedy contains almost all the scientific achievements in the Middle Ages. In the application of fantasy, symbol and metaphor, it is full of the mystery of Christianity and the passion of new humanism. In the form of poetry, the three parts of Hell, Holland and Heaven are equal in length, and each part consists of 33 songs, plus the preface, which makes a total of 100 songs. The use of "three-line chain rhyme method" embodies the spirit of "trinity" of Christianity. Although it did not get rid of the shackles of serious formalism in the Middle Ages, this rigorous structure has also been affirmed by many literary historians. The Divine Comedy, like the two faces of janus, makes Dante "the last poet in the Middle Ages and the first poet in the new era." Peterak is another great poet after Dante. He not only devoted himself to studying ancient Greek and Roman manuscripts, but also paid attention to learning from medieval folk literature. His poetry collections inherited the tradition of Provence love poems and Italian "gentle new poetry school" in style, but also jumped out of the mysterious symbol and idolization of characters in traditional poems and broke through the cage of medieval theological thought and asceticism. Boccaccio, another humanist writer, wrote the immortal decameron, which directly criticized and mocked the darkness and evil of the church and attacked religious asceticism. Decameron is based on medieval legends, historical events and oriental legends (such as Arabian Nights), but it can't be found in ancient Greek and Roman literature. Cervantes, a Spanish writer, followed the shell of medieval chivalry literature and wrote Don Quixote, a humanistic masterpiece against chivalry. Although we think that Shakespeare's statement that "the conscious characteristics that determine Shakespeare's thinking habits are based on medieval thoughts" is one-sided, Shakespeare's plays do draw lessons from medieval English folk dramas. In painting and sculpture, the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo, the "three masters" of the Renaissance, such as The Last Supper, The Sistine Madonna and Mourning for Christ, all follow the religious theme, but the humanistic spirit expressed in the works and the content of affirming people's good qualities are incompatible with the religious essence.

Therefore, it is not enough to discuss how humanists serve new ideas and new cultures with the help of the dead in ancient Greece and Rome. The intersection of ancient Greek and Roman cultures and medieval cultures influenced the Renaissance, and Aphrodite's golden apples and Adam and Eve's forbidden fruits did not hinder their appetite. The pioneers of the Renaissance adopted the sublation spirit of overcoming and retaining, denying and affirming the medieval culture. It is they who consciously or unconsciously accepted the cultural heritage of the past and created the new culture needed by the new era.

Second, "the hero at that time has not yet become a slave to the division of labor."

We call the outstanding pioneers of the Renaissance "giants" because apart from their thinking ability, enthusiasm and personality, they can also display their versatility and knowledge in various fields of natural science and social science and reach the height of the times.

Leonardo da Vinci was the first giant highly praised by Engels in An Introduction to Dialectics of Nature. In addition to his reputation in the field of fine arts, he has also successfully engaged in anatomy, physiology, zoology, botany, geology, geography, topographic survey, cosmology, pure mechanics, hydraulics, hydromechanics, oceanography, acoustics, optics, heat, astronomy, mathematics and various technical research. Engels also nominated painter, bronze sculptor and architect Diu Lei, politician, historian, poet and military writer Machiavelli, and religious reformer, essayist and musician Luther. In addition, rabelais, the author of The Legend of the Giant, is undoubtedly a giant. His knowledge covers many contemporary subjects: astronomy, geography, mathematics, philosophy, medicine, plants, music, legal system, education, ancient classics, and he knows more than ten languages. Dante, Boccaccio, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Copernicus, Francis Bacon and Moore. He is also a versatile and knowledgeable giant.

Engels pointed out when analyzing the characteristics of giants in the Renaissance: "The heroes at that time have not yet become slaves to the division of labor, and the limited and one-sided influence of the division of labor is often seen by their successors. But their characteristic is that almost all of them live and move in the movement of the times, and fight on one side or the other. Some people use their tongues and pens, some use their swords, and some use both. Therefore, the integrity and strength in character make them perfect. " Engels particularly emphasized "life and sports" here. They broke the limitation of division of labor, came into being with the flood of the times, and actively struggled with the flood of the times and stood at the forefront of the times.

The social division of labor itself has duality. To understand the progress and limitations of this division of labor, we must first talk about two kinds of promotion of human essential strength. The first time is to promote people from other animals in terms of species relationship, and the second time is to promote people from other animals in terms of social relations. The promotion of species relationship is achieved through general production. When people have general production capacity, they are separated from the animal kingdom from species relationship. When human beings were born, they completed the first promotion, but at this time, people are still in a semi-animal state, and they need to be promoted from animals for the second time, that is, the promotion of social relations. Because human production is not an individual's behavior, but a collective activity, it is impossible for any individual to survive as a human being in the world, and he is bound to be restricted by the relations of production. Marx believes that only by eliminating private ownership and realizing * * * productism, * * * working together and * * * enjoying together can the second promotion of human's essential strength be completed.

The first promotion of human essential strength is accompanied by the first division of labor in human production, that is, the division of labor between agriculture and animal husbandry in primitive society and the second division of labor between agriculture and handicrafts in slave society. This social division of labor is a restriction for individuals, but it is a historical progress for mankind. From the limitation, because of this division of labor, individuals can only engage in a narrow range of labor, which leads to the separation of material labor and spiritual labor in human society and limits the multi-directional development of human talents. In literature and art, "because of the division of labor, artistic genius is completely concentrated on individuals, so the artistic genius of the broad masses is suppressed." In primitive society, people can freely engage in artistic creation activities, and art generally no longer expresses the collective will and ideals of all members of society. If Greek myths and epics express collective will, then the appearance of Saf's lyric poems marks the awakening of personal consciousness. As far as progressiveness is concerned, this situation also has its advantages for the development of art. As Engels said, "Only slavery can make a larger division of labor between agriculture and industry possible, thus creating conditions for the prosperity of ancient culture, that is, Greek culture." This is because, "when the productivity of human labor is still very low, in addition to the necessary means of subsistence, it is only through a greater division of labor that it is possible to improve productivity, expand exchanges, develop countries and laws, and create art and science ..."

The high prosperity of literature and art in the Renaissance is also closely related to the division of labor. Taking Italian painting as an example, Marx and Engels pointed out: "Raphael's works of art are largely related to the prosperity of Rome formed under the influence of Florence at that time, while Leonardo's works are deeply influenced by Florence's environment. Like other artists, Raphael is also restricted by technological achievements, social organization, local division of labor and division of labor among countries in the world with local connections. Whether an individual like Raphael can develop his genius smoothly depends entirely on needs, which in turn depends on the division of labor and the educational conditions of people produced by the division of labor. " It is precisely because of this division of labor that Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael are listed as outstanding masters in art history with their elegant and skillful skills and rich artistic output. Of course, this division of labor will inevitably suppress the artistic genius of the general public. As far as the whole class is concerned, human nature cannot be fully developed before the second promotion of human essential strength is completed.

Renaissance giants can not only make use of the conditions created by division of labor, but also get rid of the simplification trend brought by division of labor. Why didn't these giants become slaves to the division of labor? First of all, this is determined by the characteristics of the times. In the long years of the Middle Ages, the development of natural science was almost frozen, while the ideological science was retrogressive. With the arrival of the Renaissance, everything has to start all over again, and the denial of the Middle Ages must be denied again. Natural science, philosophy, economics, literature and art are all calling for giants. This urgent demand of the times makes their talents not develop in a certain field. With the transition of scientific research from collecting materials to sorting out materials, classification makes the significance of social division of labor more important. Secondly, this is also determined by the characteristics of the "giant". They conform to the historical trend and are "almost all in the movement of the times" and "active", and this positive and enthusiastic enterprising spirit makes them all-round development people. Research in various fields always influences each other. The study of anatomy not only provides the accuracy of the proportional structure of human art, but also enhances people's understanding and affirmation. The study of mathematics and physics promoted the development of painting perspective. Michelangelo not only painted himself, but also studied the poems of Peterak, Boccaccio and Dante. He is a poet himself. Dante and Boccaccio studied under the painter Giotto, enriching their works. Leonardo da Vinci devoted his life to inventions in various fields and established materialistic philosophy. More importantly, they have the courage to pursue and defend the truth in their career. Without the courage to fight for the truth and participate in the actual struggle of the Renaissance, it is impossible to cultivate their erudition and versatility. They can only become second-and third-rate figures at most, or be cautious mediocrities.

Third, they "will never be restricted by the bourgeoisie"

Engels also pointed out when evaluating the giants of the Renaissance: "The figures who laid the foundation for modern bourgeois rule were never restricted by the bourgeoisie. On the contrary, the adventurous spirit that has become the characteristic of the times has more or less promoted the development of these characters. " The pioneers of the Renaissance, as outstanding thinkers and doers of the bourgeoisie, embodied the progressive tendency of history.

First of all, when they opposed the feudal class, the bourgeoisie appeared as the representative of the whole society. Marx and Engels made an incisive exposition on this: "Every new class trying to replace the old ruling class has to say that its own interests are the common interests of all members of society in order to achieve its own goals. In the abstract, it is a universal form of thinking given to oneself, and it is described as the only reasonable and universal thought. As far as the revolutionary class is concerned, it did not appear as a class from the beginning, but as a representative of the whole society. It seems to oppose the only ruling class with the attitude of everyone in society. It can do this because its interests did have more connections with the interests of all other non-ruling classes at the beginning. Under the pressure of those relationships at that time, it was too late to develop into the special interests of special classes. " The task of Renaissance is to advocate humanity and oppose divinity. Advocating science and opposing ignorance; Advocating personality liberation and opposing asceticism aims at destroying the autocratic spiritual rule of the feudal church in the Middle Ages, safeguarding human dignity, value and strength, and establishing a centralized and unified country. Obviously, this is not only the request of the bourgeoisie, but also the common aspiration of the broad masses. For example, the contribution of Renaissance writers in culture reflects this popularity. They inherited the tradition, based on reality, and expressed the theme of anti-tyranny and freedom in their works. They write in national languages and pay attention to learning from folk literature. Their readers are all the people, not just the bourgeoisie, and many of the questions they raised are issues of common concern to all the people. Who does Hamlet think of? Thinking about the "survival or destruction" of all mankind, who does Dante sigh for? Sigh for the suffering history of all mankind.

Secondly, these "people who laid the foundation for modern bourgeois rule" can not only resist the feudal class, but also criticize the shortcomings of the bourgeoisie itself in the development process. Most of these characters come from upper-class families, but they betrayed their aristocratic or bourgeois families and turned their attention to the people. Thomas Moore was born in a big bureaucratic family, and he himself was a justice. In his book Utopia, he exposed the evil of "sheep eating people" in the primitive accumulation period of capitalism, pointed out that capitalist private ownership was the universal root of poverty, put forward the slogan of eliminating private ownership, and predicted that a society without exploitation and oppression and with freedom and equality for all would come soon. In Sun City, campanella depicts a world of great harmony in which private ownership and exploitation have been eliminated. Labor has become everyone's conscious demand, and everyone is equal politically and economically. This is a powerful criticism of the Italian social system at that time. We can see that these pioneers have stood at the highest point of the times.

Third, when these advanced figures struggled for their ideals, they did make selfless contributions, which were incomparable to those bourgeois mediocrities in later generations. Dante was exiled in 19 for safeguarding national unity. He refused to reduce his sentence and never gave in. He dedicated his patriotic enthusiasm to The Divine Comedy. Rabelais's Biography of the Giant was banned for attacking the church when it was published. He faced difficulties and then wrote the second, third and fourth books. As a result, the publisher was burned to death, and rabelais was displaced all his life. Campanella was twice sentenced by the Inquisition and imprisoned for 30 years. In prison, he wrote a large number of literary works and papers to express his vision of ideals and love for truth. Moore fought with King Henry VIII of England, was put into the Tower of London and was finally beheaded. The Italian philosopher Bruno was burned alive by the Inquisition. When Bruno was pushed to the stake, he announced loudly: "Fire can't conquer me, and the future world will know my value!" " These heroes are fearless because they are full of confidence in the future. They are not afraid of losing anything in the struggle, but only the spiritual shackles of the old world.

In short, the giants of the Renaissance were not restricted by the bourgeoisie. In the final analysis, this is because they insist on materialism. They advocate knowledge, oppose ignorance, explore boldly and seek truth from facts. They not only saw the evils of the feudal class, but also realized the weaknesses of their own class, and they had the fearless spirit of fighting and dedicating themselves to the truth.

Of course, "never restricted by generations and classes" does not mean that they are perfect, and even "perfect" has certain historical limitations. But what we see is not whether what he provided to future generations is perfect, but whether they provided what they did not have in their previous times. Only by adhering to this point can we make a fair evaluation of the giants of the Renaissance.

-Foreign Literature Studies of China Renmin University, issue 1990+0 1.