Why are bronzes and antiques basically concentrated in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period?

Antique dealers judge the age and authenticity of bronzes by looking, touching, listening, smelling and licking their tongues, which is entirely based on long-term accumulated practical experience. Now experts have advanced scientific instruments, and they can even use laser to measure (although the instruments are advanced, they are still in the hands of experts without basic knowledge). )。 As a general bronze lover, where should we start to identify the authenticity of a bronze? We must master the key points of identifying ancient bronzes, that is, rust color, feel and sound, pattern and style, copper and vessel types, in order to draw a relatively similar conclusion.

(1) rust color

After thousands of years, bronzes have been handed down in three ways: burying, falling into the water and passing on from generation to generation. Experts said: "Bronze wares are as green as melon skin and jade when they enter the water for a thousand years;" In less than a thousand years, although it is green, it is not as good as jade; The handed down bronzes that have not been buried in water are purple-brown, but they have vermilion spots, and even their spots are raised. "Generally speaking, most of the bronzes unearthed at present have been handed down from generation to generation. Due to the difference of copper, soil quality and water quality, the rust color of buried bronzes is also different, including green rust, red rust, blue rust and purple embroidery. When you get a bronze ware, you must first look at it. If the rust color is integrated with the body, the depth is consistent, solid and uniform, and the luster is natural, it is a naturally generated rust color. If the rust color floats on the utensils, it is green but not bright, and the skin is rusty and not moist and dazzling, which is pseudo-rust; At this time, we will do further examination and approval, rub our hands and touch the utensils, smell our hands with our noses, and there will definitely be a copper smell, because the Millennium bronzes have no copper smell; You can also wash it with hot alkali, and the fake rust will fall off. If you can't wash it off, use fire. Or lick it with your tongue. If it is salty, it is also fake rust.

(2) Feeling and sound

If you weigh it by hand, it will attract attention if it is too light or too heavy. Of course, it all depends on experience. In addition, you can tap the object with your hand and listen to its sound, if it is thin and crisp; If the voice is turbid and makes a "buzzing" sound, you need to be vigilant.

(3) mode and mode

This is a key point in identifying bronzes. Bronzes in Xia Dynasty have simple patterns. The patterns in Shang Dynasty are gorgeous and varied, many of which are covered with flowers. The Western Zhou Dynasty is roughly the same as Shang Dynasty, but it tends to be simple in the later period. The patterns in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are fresh and lively, full of life, practical in the Qin and Han Dynasties, with few patterns and not as fine as the previous generation. In addition, we can also infer and judge from the changes of decorative patterns in different times. As for and, it can be distinguished mainly from its font. In Shang dynasty, the fonts were regular, the brushwork was generous, beautiful and free-and-easy, and there were many elegant and beautiful waves in the later period; At the beginning of the week, following the wave body; In the Spring and Autumn Period, there were fat bodies, tadpole-shaped "Li Douwen" and patterned "Bird and Insect Books". The inscriptions on bronze inscriptions in the Warring States period are not exquisite, but they also have the embryonic form of "hanging seal", with long vertical pen and sharp pen tip. The Qin dynasty unified the characters, using the universal seal script. Mastering this, it would be a joke if there was a small seal font on a bronze ware called Three Dynasties. In addition, it can also be judged according to the number and content of inscriptions.

(4) Copper and porcelain

The identification of copper is relatively simple. Look at the bronze is the bottom. If it is brass, it is a fake. If the soles of your feet have been counterfeited with copper color, you can see their true colors by scrubbing them with hot alkaline water. In addition to remembering the types and names of bronzes, we should also know when bronzes were cast and what styles of bronzes were cast. For example, the altar and the altar are square containers, which appeared at the end of the Warring States period. If it is three generations of workmanship and rust color, it is a fake. Another example is the tripod, which has existed throughout the ages, but if it has a cover and the tripod is short, it is unlikely to be an article of three generations.

It is a tedious and difficult thing to identify bronzes, but as long as you master the main points, read more, remember more and think more, you can still identify the true and false.

(5) Introduction of main decorative patterns of bronzes.

Kui Wen expressed a legendary animal similar to a dragon, saying, "One foot". Most patterns are a horn, a foot, an open mouth and a curled tail. Some kuiwen became geometric decorations. Mostly used as the main pattern on utensils.

"Dragon, the length of scale worm, can be quiet and bright, can be thin and huge", and the pattern takes the legendary dragon image. There are basically three forms: flexion form, in which several dragons are intertwined and their heads are separated from the middle.

The pattern of "Red Yin ruler" is shaped like an animal spitting, with its mouth open and its tail curled. "What will happen to a snake?" . Zhao Wei's note: "The little snake is bigger". The pattern consists of a flat and curved snake (autumn).

Some birds have long feathers and drooping tails, while others have long tails rolled up and their heads look forward or backward. There are also birds with high crowns on their heads, which are carried or hung down on their heads. This bird pattern is also called Feng Niaowen. Bird patterns are often used as the theme decoration on utensils.

Most cicada patterns are made into triangles, with no front and back feet, and they are filled with Yun Leiwen. Some are very long, with front and back feet and Yun Leiwen in the middle.

Silkworms have round heads, protruding eyes and bent bodies. Most of them are decorated on the mouth or feet of utensils.

The image pattern shows the shape of the image, which has obvious long nose characteristics, and there are also patterns that only use the elephant head and trunk.

The patterns and patterns of fish show the shape of fish, some are dull and some are vivid. One or two dorsal fins and one ventral fin. Fish patterns are often decorated in dishes, reflecting the close combination of vessel decoration and vessel shape. Fish patterns are also commonly used in bronze washing and mirrors.

The shape of the turtle pattern generally depicts the complete shape of the turtle, which is rarely seen on bronzes and is mostly used on plates.

The shell pattern is shaped like a shell, and the shells are connected to form a pattern.

Yun Leiwen is a typical decorative pattern on bronzes. Its basic feature is to form geometric figures with continuous convolutions. Some make a circular continuous composition, called moire; Some make a square continuous composition, which is simply called thunder pattern. Yun Leiwen often makes ground patterns of bronzes to set off the theme patterns. There are also those that appear alone in the neck or feet of the object.

The cross-ray pattern consists of lines that are approximately T-shaped and connected with each other.

One of the simplest decorative patterns on bronzes. Nipples with convex patterns are arranged in a single line or a square matrix. On the other hand, the chest nails are arranged in a diagonal square, which is called diagonal square chest nail pattern.

Bronzes in Xia, Shang, Zhou, Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period are a glorious period of development, maturity and even prosperity of bronzes. Bronze, called gold or auspicious gold in ancient times, is an alloy of red copper and other chemical elements (tin, nickel, lead, phosphorus, etc.). ), its rust is turquoise, hence the name. Bronze ware, with its unique shape, exquisite ornamentation and elegant inscriptions, reveals the casting technology, cultural level and historical origin of the pre-Qin period and is called "living history book" by historians. From Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties to Qin and Han Dynasties, the time span is about 2000 years. Historically known as the "Bronze Age", it refers to the period when bronze tools and bronze ritual vessels were widely used. China's ancient civilization has a long history and is profound, and bronzes are its epitome and representative.

A brief history of bronzes

The ancient bronze culture in China is very developed, and it is famous for its excellent production, magnificent spirit and superb technology. Slave owners used bronzes as sacrificial vessels for feasting and placing them in ancestral temples. Bronze ware is not something that ordinary people can own. As a symbol of rights and status, it is a ritual vessel to commemorate and make contributions.

Bronze culture has been developed all over the world, because bronze has its advantages as a raw material for tools and utensils. First of all, there are natural pure copper blocks (that is, red copper) in nature, so copper is also one of the earliest metals known by human beings. However, the hardness of red copper is low, so it is not suitable for making production tools and has little effect in production. Later, people discovered tin ore and learned to refine tin. On this basis, people realize that copper with tin, that is, bronze, is harder than pure copper. After determination, the hardness of red copper is 35 degrees by Brinn hardness tester, and the hardness is increased to 68 degrees by adding 5% tin. Add 10% tin, that is, raise it to 88 degrees. The hardness can be further improved after tempering.

In ancient China, people have been able to accurately grasp the proportion of tin and lead in bronze. Tin and lead can be added in proportion according to different casting requirements. "Examination of Zhou Li" clearly records the production of different alloy proportions: gold and tin account for one sixth, which is called clock (agent). Its gold and tin are divided into one, which is called axe (agent). Its gold and tin are divided into four parts, which is called gas accumulation (agent) Its gold and tin are divided into one, that is, the gas (agent) of the big blade. Its gold and tin rank second in five points, which is called the same agent for cutting and killing arrows. Half of it is called the mirror (bronze mirror) of Qi (agent).

Generally speaking, the more tin is added, the harder the bronze is cast, but at the same time the bronze will become more brittle. Secondly, the bronze solution has good fluidity, and the shrinkage rate during solidification is very small. So you can cast some objects with exquisite details. Finally, bronze is chemically stable, corrosion-resistant and can be preserved for a long time. In addition, bronze has a low melting point, so it does not need high temperature to melt. So the bronzes are worn out and can be recast. Archaeology has proved that Chinese bronzes have a long history, dating back to around 3000 BC. About 2000 years ago, China entered the Bronze Age from the slave society Xia Dynasty and ended in the Spring and Autumn Period. From Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn to Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, the feudal society had institutional development and evolution in each period. There are many kinds and shapes of ancient Chinese bronzes, including ritual vessels, production tools, weapons, chariots and horses. The ritual vessels include food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels and musical instruments.

Ritual vessels: The developed bronze ritual vessels are one of the remarkable features that distinguish China's ancient bronze culture from other countries, and are also the essential features of China's ancient bronze culture. The development of ritual vessels was determined by the extremely strong patriarchal relationship in the slave society in ancient China. People's worship of ancestors and gods goes far beyond their own identification. Bronze ritual vessels appeared in the Xia Dynasty. By the Shang Dynasty, especially in the late Shang Dynasty, bronze ritual vessels were very mature, and the main types of vessels were already available, mainly including food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels and musical instruments. Ding is the main object in bronze ritual vessels. In ancient society, it was regarded as a symbol of the rank and rights of the ruling class. "Historical Records-amenorrhea": "In the summer, the gold (copper) of Jiumu was collected to cast Jiuding", and Jiuding became a symbol of kingship and a treasure spread throughout the country. Later, "German chaos, Ding moved to business." Zhou destroyed the Shang Dynasty and moved to Jiuding in Luoyi (now Luoyang) after becoming king. In the Spring and Autumn Period, in the first year of King Ding Zhou (606 BC), the Rong of Lu Hun was cut, near Luoyi. King Ding sent a king to comfort him and took the opportunity to inquire about Jiuding's "size", which was strongly refuted by the king: "Although Zhou De has declined, his destiny has not changed, it is impossible to ask about his size" (Zuo Zhuan was published in the third year of AD). This is the famous winning story in history. At present, the earliest bronze tripod in the archaeological discovery era was unearthed from Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan Province in the early Shang Dynasty. 1939, Wu Ding, the stepmother of the late Shang Dynasty, was unearthed in Wuguan Village, Yinxu, Anyang. There are two straight ears at the edge of the mouth and four cylindrical feet under the abdomen. The abdomen is decorated with animal face patterns and [sunflower pattern], the lateral ear is decorated with double beard patterns, and the upper part of the foot is also decorated with animal face patterns, all of which are mysterious and complicated with Yun Leiwen as the ground pattern. The inscription "Empress Wu" is cast on the inner wall of the abdomen, which shows that it was cast by the Shang Dynasty or Zujia as a sacrifice to his mother Wu. It is enormous, with a height of 1.33 m, a length of1.65,438+00 m and a width of 0.79 m. 1994 was measured by the Science and Technology Department of China History Museum and China Institute of Metrology, and the measured weight was 832.84 kg. It is not only the heaviest bronze ware in ancient China, but also the heaviest bronze ware in the ancient world. Exquisitely made, it is composed of several pieces of pottery internal and external molds, representing the height of ancient bronze smelting and casting industry in China and the unparalleled wisdom and creativity of ancient people in China. The bronze tripod was developed on the basis of the extensive use of ceramic tripod in Neolithic Age. The earliest bronze tripod found at present appeared in the early Shang Dynasty, that is, the cultural period of Khan Lee in Shang Dynasty. It was used in the Han Dynasty and even in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and it was used in bronzes for the longest time, so it changed a lot. There are also Round Ding, Flat Foot Ding and Fang Ding. The Shang Dynasty used the Ding system. Generally, there are one or two small and medium-sized tombs buried with them. This is true in most areas, both inside and outside the Yin Ruins. However, the royal mausoleum is very different. In the late Shang Dynasty, Fang Ding II and Pingzu Fang Ding II were unearthed from Muhao Tomb in Yin Ruins, with 32 round ding of different sizes and a small number of broken fragments, indicating that there is a strict difference between small and medium-sized tombs and royal tombs. It was the Li Ding system of the Western Zhou Dynasty that showed obvious hierarchical order. In the TombNo. Zhuyuangou 1 in Baoji in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, there were three sets of ding with different sizes, which matched the other two sets. The higher the aristocratic rank of slave owners, the more they used, which means the more meat they enjoyed. According to the Book of Rites, in the Western Zhou Dynasty, the emperor used Jiuding, and the first peak was full of cows, which was called Tailao. The following are sheep, tapirs, fish, wax, intestines and stomach, skin, fresh fish and fresh wax; Seven cauldrons, also called prison, are generally used to reduce the taste of fresh meat and wax; (But in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the princes feasted, and Qing Dafu could also use Jiuding); Dr. Qing used five Ding, which he called Shao Long. Dings are actually sheep, tapirs, fish, wax and skins. Scholars use three tripods, which are actually tapirs, fish and wax (scholars also use one tripod, which is actually tapirs).

Bronzes in the development period

In the early and middle period of Shang Dynasty (BC16th century-BC13rd century), the bronze wares in the early and middle period of Shang Dynasty were the mature development period of bronze art in China. The ritual vessel system based on wine vessels was initially established, and the types of weapons increased. Generally decorated with animal facial patterns, the composition is gradually dense, and the lines are deep and vigorous. The application of separate casting technology has been relatively skilled, and the technology of making and combining models has also made great progress. Bronzes in this period were mostly found in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, which laid the foundation for the prosperity of bronze art.

Bronzes in their heyday

From the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty (BC13rd century-BC 1 1 century), bronze art was brilliant for a while. The heavy wine system of Shang Dynasty ritual vessels was perfect, and a large number of decorative patterns on the vessels were combined with relief and flat carving, which was exquisite. The use of exaggeration and symbolism to express animal facial patterns is unprecedented, both solemn and mysterious, full of life. He Chronicles appeared in the last years of Shang Dynasty. At the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, the ritual vessels followed the commercial system, and there was a clue to change to the heavy food system. Casting dragon inscriptions is an important feature of bronze ritual vessels in the Western Zhou Dynasty.

Bronzes in the transitional period

In the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period (BC165438+the end of the 20th century-the first half of the 7th century BC), the bronze wares in the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty formed a heavy food system. The habit of ding system, chime system and life-giving device has been formed. New objects appear, with dignified and heavy shapes, and the decorative patterns are mostly animal deformation, or smooth circulation, or simple and simple. It is more common to cast inscriptions on utensils, and it is more common to cast heavy objects with long inscriptions. The shape and ornamentation in the early Spring and Autumn Period is a natural continuation of the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty. Various vassal States have generally established bronze casting industry, with different levels, some casting techniques are slightly rough, while the tools of big countries are relatively fine and strict.

Renew bronzes

From the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period (the second half of the 7th century BC-22 BC1year), the development of bronze art reached its climax again. Bronzes in various countries tend to be mature, with obvious regional characteristics. Jin and Qin bronze art in the north, Qilu bronze art in the east and Jingchu bronze art in the south complement each other. The practical function of utensils has been strengthened, and the function of ritual vessels has gradually disappeared. With the innovation of shape, many wonderful and exquisite tools have appeared. The dragon-themed decorative patterns are fine and complex, and the active portraits of characters creatively appear as the main patterns. Made by wax pattern method and printing module assembly method, the mosaic process is gorgeous and ingenious. The inscription font also emphasizes beautification. In the late Warring States period, bronze art tended to be simple and simple.

Qin and Han dynasties are the afterglow of the development history of bronzes.

Bronzes are mainly divided into five categories: wine vessels, food vessels, water vessels, musical instruments and weapons.

Drinking vessel

The vessels used by Jue Jue to drink wine are the earliest bronze ritual vessels. The general shape of the Jue is: there is a flow in front, that is, a trough for pouring wine, a pointed tail in the back, a cup in the middle, a pin on the ventral side and three feet under it. There is a column between the liquid flow and the cup mouth (the column can be used for filtration).

Horn (sound Jue) drinking fountain. There is no column, no flow, and both ends are tails. Jiao Tong felt that the capacity ratio was four to one. At present, the earliest bronze angle found is the special-shaped pipe flow angle of Erlitou culture period collected by Shanghai Museum.

Respect tall, large or medium-sized wine containers. According to its shape, it can be divided into three categories: shoulder, big mouth and dragon and beast.

This pot is used to hold wine. It was always used from Shang Dynasty to Han Dynasty or later. Shop head: The base of knocker is mostly tiger head, stinger, turtle, snake, etc. , play a role in decorating the pot body.

Baa: (Sounds like you) A container for wine. Popular in the late Shang Dynasty and the Western Zhou Dynasty.

(gūng) The name of the wine vessel is unknown, and it is said that it is established. It appeared in the late Yin Ruins and remained in use until the early Western Zhou Dynasty.

"Clothes" is a container for wine. Generally square, it appeared in the late Shang Dynasty.

tributary

Beans are special containers for pickles, meat sauces and condiments. Bronze beans appeared in the late Shang Dynasty and prevailed in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Tonglingdou unearthed in Baode County, Shanxi Province is the earliest known bronze bean. Beans are also a kind of ritual vessels, which usually appear in pairs. In ancient times, there were certain laws and regulations on the amount of beans used. The Book of Rites says, "There are people who value most, ... the beans of the son of heaven are six out of twenty, the princes are six out of ten, the princes are two out of ten, the doctors are eight, and the doctors are six." However, few bronze beans have been unearthed, which may be related to the use of pottery beans, lacquer beans, bamboo beans and cajanus cajan at that time.

Ding bronze ding has many uses, such as cook the meat, sacrifice, banquet and so on. The earliest bronze tripod found at present appeared in the early Shang Dynasty, and was used in the Han Dynasty and even the Wei and Jin Dynasties. It is the longest-used and most diverse vessel in bronze ware. As a cooking vessel, the tripod has no special function, but as a ritual vessel, it is a symbol of the rank and power of the ruling class. In ancient society, there was a corresponding system for the use of butyl, which was called "the arrangement of butyl". According to the literature, in the Western Zhou Dynasty, the emperor used Jiuding, the most prosperous cow, which was called "Tai Prison". Sheep, tapirs, fish, fat, intestines and stomach, fat, fresh fish and fresh wax are all served below. Governors generally use seven ding, also known as supervisor, to reduce the taste of fresh meat and wax; Dr. Qing uses five ding, which is called the peak of sheep, tapir, fish, wax and skin; Scholars use three tripods to hold tapirs, fish and wax, and scholars also use one tripod to hold tapirs.

Yan is a rice steamer, which is divided into two parts. The upper part was used to hold rice, which was called "truth" in ancient times. The lower part is plum, which is used for boiling water and has holes in the middle for ventilation. In the early Shang Dynasty, bronze wares were cast, but few were made. From the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty, there were many, especially western weekends and early spring and autumn. Yan is an essential tool in most bronze ritual tombs.

Reed is a utensil for holding rice, sorghum and other foods. Bronze reeds appeared in the early Shang dynasty, but the number was small, and gradually increased in the late Shang dynasty. In the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the reed was an important ritual vessel. Especially in the Western Zhou Dynasty, it was used together with even-numbered combination and odd-numbered tripod in sacrifice and banquet, just like tripod system. According to records, the Emperor of Heaven used nine ding and eight GUI, the vassal used seven ding and six GUI, the doctor used five ding and four GUI, and the Yuan scholar used three ding and two GUI. The unearthed reeds are even.

Reed is a vessel for holding millet, millet, rice, sorghum and other rice. It was developed from the combination of tripod shape and reed shape, which came into being in the middle of Spring and Autumn Period, prevailed in the late Spring and Autumn Period to the late Warring States Period, and disappeared after Qin Dynasty. Its basic shape is up and down circle, inside and outside circle, and the cover and container are combined into a sphere or ellipse.

Li is a porridge pot. Bronze bowls first appeared in the early Shang Dynasty. It has a big mouth and a bag-like abdomen, just like the breasts of three cows, with three short conical feet below. The function of bag-shaped belly is to expand the fire area and cook food quickly. However, after the late Shang Dynasty, the bag-shaped abdomen gradually degenerated, and most bronze bowls were exquisite in patterns, so they were not suitable for cooking with fire and should be used as porridge containers.