What are ghost particles? How effective is it?

Ghost particles are actually neutrinos. As for why they are called ghost particles, it is simply because they are difficult to be captured by people, just like ghosts. It can be said that neutrinos are the most difficult to detect among all the elementary particles known at present. Of course, in the universe, there are still some particles that we can't detect at present, such as dark matter particles that are slightly slower than neutrinos, which we also call cold dark matter.

dark matter particles are more mysterious than neutrinos. Although our bodies are insensitive to neutrinos and dark matter particles, they actually fill the space around us, and trillions of neutrinos and dark matter particles penetrate our bodies every second. So how did we find neutrinos?

first of all, we can find neutrinos but not dark matter particles, because neutrinos are not only preserved in large quantities in the early days of the universe, but also the second most abundant particles in the universe, second only to photons, and they are also by-products of nuclear reactions. But we only know that dark matter particles were generated in the early universe, but they don't participate in any form of reaction at present, so we can't detect dark matter particles.

Now let's go back to neutrinos. The discovery of these particles benefits from our discovery and research on small-scale or nuclear reactions. Before that, we thought that the basic law of conservation in the universe was the conservation of mass, because people found that no matter what kind of chemical reaction or physical action, that is to say, no matter what kind of chemical change you put an object through, or beat it into any character by physical means, the total mass of substances before the reaction is always equal to the total mass of products after the reaction.

the above idea is the principle of writing chemical equations when we are in middle school, that is, the mass of objects will not change. However, when people's research scale moves from atomic level to nucleus, and the energy form moves from chemical reaction to nuclear reaction, it is found that there is a problem with the criterion of mass conservation. Because there are some heavier nuclei in nature, generally speaking, elements heavier than lead will decay, and the way of decay is to transform α particles (helium nuclei) or β particles (single electrons) into lighter elements.

this magical reaction will lead to the obvious loss of mass of matter, which makes people wonder whether this violates the law of conservation of mass. Facts have proved that when Einstein deduced the famous E = MC 2 through the special relativity equation, people realized that mass is actually a realized form of energy, and after the nuclear reaction of the nucleus, the mass of the product was lost because some mass was dissipated in the form of energy. However, no mass loss was found in the previous chemical reaction because the dissipated energy was too small, even negligible.

at this point, the theorem of conservation of mass, which has been maintained for thousands of years, has been rewritten as conservation of energy, that is to say, in a closed system, no matter what changes matter undergoes, energy will never disappear out of thin air. When people are carefully measuring the beta decay of radioactive atoms, they find problems again. This time, many scientists are annoyed, and even some people want to give up the iron law of energy conservation.

Because after the beta decay of radioactive elements, a small part of energy loss is still found by measuring the total energy before and after the reaction, but this loss cannot be ignored. At that time, people did not find out what particles were generated in the process of β decay. So even the scientific Daniel Bohr at that time began to suspect that the conservation of energy might be wrong.

In this case, there are actually only two options, either to completely abandon the iron-like law that has been adhered to for centuries, or to generate particles that are unknown to us and can't be detected at present, and they take away some energy when they are generated. The physicist Pauli chose the latter. In the universe, in addition to the conservation of energy, there is also the conservation of charge, and no change in charge is found before and after the reaction. Therefore, Pauli thinks that this new particle is neutral without charge and has a small mass, so it was called neutrino at that time, and later it was renamed neutrino.

in 195, American physicists Cowan and Reines and others successfully proved the existence of neutrinos by capturing the anti-neutrinos generated in nuclear reactors through hydrogen nuclei, that is, protons, and the anti-β decay occurred. And won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995. Although neutrinos have been discovered, their quality has been puzzling scientists until now. So why are neutrinos so difficult to detect?

neutrinos are difficult to detect mainly in the following aspects:

Firstly, the main reason is not participating in electromagnetic interaction. There are four basic forces (electromagnetic force, gravity, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force) in nature, among which electromagnetic interaction force and gravity are the most intuitive, farthest and most extensive forces in life, and the detection means we have mastered at present are basically focused on electromagnetic force. Neutrinos have no charge, so there is no electromagnetic interaction, so neutrinos can easily penetrate any substance atom.

another is that neutrinos are extremely low in mass and small in size. Neutrinos belong to leptons like electrons, but their mass is much lower than that of electrons, and their reaction cross section is very small, so the probability of collision with the nucleus or any particles is very low, that is, neutrinos rarely participate in weak interactions. Therefore, its penetration ability is extremely strong, and a lead block of 5 light years can barely block neutrinos.

finally, the quality of neutrinos. The standard model predicts that neutrinos have no mass, but when we observe solar neutrinos, we find that the neutrinos captured are 1/3 of the predicted total, which shows that a large part of neutrinos have disappeared. This is the famous solar neutrino problem, and later humans realized that neutrinos have not disappeared. But neutrinos also have three flavors (electron neutrinos, μ neutrinos and τ neutrinos), which can be transformed into each other through weak interaction. This shows that neutrinos have mass, which is what we often call neutrino oscillation, which refers to the transformation between neutrinos.

The above are some properties of neutrinos and the reasons why it is difficult to be found.

what are ghost particles? How effective is it?

with the expansion of the field of exploring the unknown world and the continuous progress of technology, people's understanding of the formation and development law of the macro universe is changing with each passing day, and the law of material composition and interaction at the micro level is also deepening. In the microscopic field, the discovery of neutrinos can be described as twists and turns. Because of its unobservability and the physical characteristics caused by it, scientists almost gave up all previous theoretical foundations. This extremely mysterious microscopic particle is also called "ghost particle" vividly. What exactly is a neutrino?

neutrinos can be said to exist all the time around us. They are one of the most basic microscopic particles released after BIGBANG. In later research, scientists found that they can be found in nuclear fusion, supernova explosion, radioactive element decay and plasma accelerator. In every cubic centimeter of our body, there are tens of billions of neutrinos passing through every second on average, and we don't feel anything. They come and go without a trace, just like ghosts. It is really worthy of the name to label them "ghost particles".

According to the results of modern research on microscopic particles, neutrinos belong to leptons and are the most basic microscopic particles in the universe. As we know, an atom is composed of a central nucleus and electrons outside the nucleus, and the nucleus includes protons and neutrons, which does not contain neutrinos. In fact, neutrinos will only be produced when the structure of the nucleus is broken and more microscopic particles are recombined.

There is only one word difference between neutrinos and neutrons, which shows that they are both related and different. Their similarities are that they are uncharged and have 1/2 spin characteristics, and because of their strong freedom, only one such particle exists in the quantum state of a system, so both neutrons and neutrinos belong to fermions. The difference between them is that neutrons belong to hadrons, not members of elementary particles, and have corresponding static masses; Neutrinos, on the other hand, belong to leptons, do not participate in strong interactions, and may have static mass (the scientific community has not yet reached a conclusion). How on earth were neutrinos discovered?

before the basic particle system in microphysics was established, the scientific community did not realize the existence of neutrinos. After Einstein put forward the law of conservation of mass, the scientific community agreed that in a closed system, the total mass after the change of matter is equal to the value before the change. Later, with the further deepening and refinement of people's research scale, especially after the discovery of radioactive substances, with the progress of nuclear fission, the total mass of the constituent substances will lose money with the progress of the reaction, and at the same time, the corresponding energy will be released. This loss of mass and the release of energy cannot be completely explained by the law of conservation of mass.

based on this, Einstein put forward the law of conservation of mass and energy, unified mass and energy, and put forward the corresponding relationship between mass and energy, that is, e = MC 2, which explained that the mass defect phenomenon caused by nuclear fission of radioactive substances was caused by the release of energy, and thus the most basic cornerstone of physics was cast.

However, when scientists discovered in the subsequent scientific research that neutron decays into protons and electrons, that is, beta decay, there will still be a certain energy loss by accurately measuring the total energy after the reaction and comparing it with that before the reaction. After eliminating the experimental error, this phenomenon has not been solved. It seems that this problem cannot be perfectly explained by the previous law of conservation of mass and energy, and it was impossible to know where the problem lies at that time. So Bohr, one of the founders of Copenhagen School, thinks that in the process of β decay, the law of conservation of energy will not be observed, and this law, which is regarded as an iron law by the scientific community, is also in danger of being overturned.

subsequently, at the international conference on nuclear physics held in 193s, many top scholars in the field of physics had a heated discussion on this issue. Some people agreed with Bohr that the law of conservation of mass and energy was incorrect and needed to re-establish the cornerstone of the field of physics. Some of them hold different views, such as Pauli, who thinks that in the process of β decay, the loss of energy is due to the fact that neutrons produce protons and electrons in the process of decay, and at the same time, they also produce a smaller neutral particle. Because of the particularity of this particle, it is this smaller neutral particle that takes away a small part of the energy, and Einstein's law of conservation of energy is still correct, and this part of the energy taken away is through experiments.

Then, according to Pauli's viewpoint and the theory of relativistic quantum mechanics, Fermi derived the formula of Fermion's lifetime and the formula of continuous energy spectrum of its decay through the generation and annihilation of Dirac radiation, and further expounded the process and law of β decay. According to Fermi's conclusion, scientists gradually realize that this special microscopic particle that produces energy loss always produces protons and electrons at the same time after neutron decay. Later, scientists used experimental methods, that is, the recoil measurement experiment of K- trapped atoms, to measure the recoil energy of atoms, and then indirectly confirmed the existence of neutrinos. The mystery of neutrinos

neutrinos are different from other basic components of atoms, and it is precisely because of its many mysterious characteristics that it is difficult to observe, so that it is not observed indirectly until a long time after scientists discover the basic structure of atoms. The mysterious characteristics of neutrinos are as follows: < P > First, they hardly react with any substance. Among the four fundamental forces in the universe (gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force), neutrinos basically do not participate in the action process of the other three forces except the weak force naturally induced in the beta decay process. As for gravity, because the scientific community still has no unified and clear conclusion about the static mass of neutrinos, the gravitational effect caused by mass is very small, and the electromagnetic force and strong nuclear force neutrinos will not participate in it at all. These two forces are the most common forces in our daily life and microscopic particle experiments, and neutrinos will not react with them, so they have a very high degree of freedom and are extremely difficult to be caught.

second, it has strong penetration. This characteristic is based on its high degree of freedom, and it does not participate in the electromagnetic force that can be detected by our observation methods. Whether we detect it with the naked eye or monitoring instruments, its principle can be attributed to electromagnetic force. At the same time, neutrinos do not participate in the strong nuclear force between microscopic particles, and are not interfered by any strong nuclear force and electromagnetic force, so they can easily pass through macroscopic objects and microscopic environments composed of atoms and subatomics. Therefore, it is not a problem that neutrinos penetrate our bodies, the earth, and even more massive stars.

the third is the quality dispute. According to the standard model of physics, the mass of a particle can be deduced by Higgs mechanism, but neutrinos have only 1/2 spin, so their mass cannot be obtained by coupling, so in theory, their mass is . However, scientists have detected that neutrinos will oscillate through experiments, that is, electric neutrinos generated in one area can be transformed into other μ neutrinos or τ neutrinos in another area, and the "oscillation" of microscopic particles is a measure of its rest mass. As for the acquisition of this quality, it is bound to be caused by breaking through other divine mechanisms outside the existing standard model of microscopic particles. At present, scientists are conducting in-depth research and demonstration on this.

the fourth is close to the speed of light. Neutrinos are not only small in size, strong in penetration, and basically do not participate in other forces, but also have ultra-high speed. The previous neutrino oscillation experiment shows that it should have a tiny mass, so its motion speed will not reach the speed of light, but it is very close to the speed of light, which also brings great challenges to people's direct monitoring of it. To sum up,

neutrino is the most elusive elementary particle in the world. It comes and goes without a trace, is highly free and has strong penetrating power, which makes it extremely difficult for scientists to observe it directly. After the existence of neutrino oscillation has been confirmed, the research on the deep-seated principle and mechanism of its mass formation will be more and more in-depth, thus providing more theoretical basis for people to understand the movement law of the micro-world more comprehensively in the future and master more mysteries of the macro-universe on this basis.

after reading the answers of several friends, I think that soul particles are spirits.