What was ancient China like in the eyes of foreigners?

The Great Song Dynasty in the Eyes of Foreign Scholars

Author: Oriental Dragonfly Jiatie Cat's Eye Look at People

German economic historian Gunder Frank said in his book Silver Capital: "In the Song Dynasty, China was particularly prominent in important technology, production, commercial development and overall economic development. McNeil believes that China was the most important "center" in the world at that time ... Since the Song Dynasty in 1 1 century and 12 century, China's economy has far surpassed other parts of the world in industrialization, commercialization, monetization and urbanization. " The famous French sinologist Cheiknai said in his book "The Social Life History of the Southern Song Dynasty": "In the 0/3rd century A.D./KLOC, China made remarkable progress in modernization, such as unique monetary economy, paper money and valuable securities, and highly developed tea and salt enterprises. ..... In the fields of social life, art, entertainment, system and technology, China was undoubtedly the most advanced country at that time, and it had every reason to regard only the rest of the world as barbarians. " Patricia Buckley Ebrey, a sinologist and professor of East Asian studies and history at the University of Illinois in the United States, said in his book "Cambridge Illustrated History of China": "1 1 2 and 13 century China was the leading country in the world at that time."

Rhodes, an American scholar who served as chairman of the Asian Studies Association? Murphy called the Song Dynasty the "golden age" of China, and evaluated it in A History of Asia. "In many ways, the Song Dynasty was the most exciting time in China, which ruled an unprecedented period of development, innovation and cultural prosperity. In many ways, the Song Dynasty was a golden age of political clarity, prosperity and innovation. Song is indeed an era full of confidence and creativity. "

American scholars L.S. Stavri and Anoos also regarded the Song Dynasty as a "golden age" and said in "A General History of the World": "It is worth noting that a veritable commercial revolution took place in the Song Dynasty, which is of great significance to the whole Eurasia. The root of the commercial revolution lies in the remarkable improvement of China's economic productivity. The steady development of technology has increased the output of traditional industries. Similarly, the introduction of early-maturing rice varieties has quadrupled crops in the past year, thus promoting agriculture. In addition, the new water conservancy project built in Song Dynasty greatly expanded the irrigation area of paddy fields. It is estimated that rice production doubled from 1 1 to 12 century. The improvement of productivity makes the corresponding population growth possible, which in turn further promotes production. The rapid development of economic activities has also increased the volume of trade. For the first time, China has a big city dominated by commerce rather than administration. "

In China Science and Civilization, a Japanese scholar said, "The Northern Song Dynasty is an epoch-making era in the history of China. In this era, neo-Confucianism appeared in Confucianism, which was later called Song learning or learning. Culturally, with the revival of ancient prose, oral literature also flourished; Printing has got unprecedented development, and the published books are not only Confucian classics, but also historical books, poetry collections and so on. What deserves special mention here is the publication and distribution of science books. It can be said that since ancient times, there has been no emphasis on medicine like the emperor of the Northern Song Dynasty. ..... In short, there are many amazing achievements in this historical trend of cultural development. Some people even think that the Northern Song Dynasty can be compared with the Renaissance in Europe and even in modern times. "

Angus Madison, a famous British economist, said when looking forward to the long-term future of China's economy: "From the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, the per capita output value of China has remained at this level. The Song Dynasty was a peak of development, and the per capita output value increased by 1/3. From14th century to 1 1 century, it probably dropped again. Assuming that the level of economic development in Europe and China was similar in the first century A.D., by the time of the Song Dynasty, there was every reason to believe that Europe had fallen far behind the level of China ... It is generally believed that the Song Dynasty was a period of deep development, and the main feature of the five hundred years after the Song Dynasty was horizontal development. " Edward Prescott, an American economist who won the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2004, said in his keynote speech "Overcoming the obstacles of national wealth-economic policy and business cycle" at the China-US New Market Economy (Beijing) Forum: "China was rich in the Song Dynasty, twice the world average."

Dr Joseph Needham, honorary director of Needham Institute of Cambridge University in the United Kingdom, said in the History of Science and Technology in China: "China's science and technology reached its peak in the Song Dynasty, and in many ways it actually surpassed the level of Britain or Europe before the industrial revolution in the middle of18th century."

Huang Renyu, Ph.D., a historian in the history department of the University of Michigan, said in The Great History of China: "With the rise of the Song Dynasty in 960 AD, China seems to have entered the modern era, and a material culture began. The circulation of money is more popular than before. Invention of gunpowder, use of flamethrower, navigation compass, astronomical clock, blast furnace, hydraulic loom, ship waterproof bulkhead, etc. Both appeared in the Song Dynasty. "

Jonathan spence, a professor of China's modern history at Yale University in the United States, published an article in Newsweek on June 65438+1 October1day, 2000, saying: "The last China century was 1 1 century. At that time, China was the largest and most successful country in the world. Its leading position stems from a series of factors, from the invention of technology to the rise of industrial enterprises and well-managed agriculture, from the universal tradition of education and administrative experiments to tolerance of religion and various philosophical thoughts. 1000 The last China is the world's superpower and the most powerful country in the world. At that time, the capital of the Song Dynasty was in the capital city of Bianliang, Tokyo, which is now Kaifeng, Henan, with a population of one million. It is the most advanced, prosperous and huge city in the world. "

Eugene Anderson, an American scholar, said in Food in China: "During the Song Dynasty, agriculture and food in China finally took shape. Food production is more reasonable and scientific. By the end of the Song Dynasty, agriculture had matured in North China, which was no longer ruled by the Han people. Since then, little has changed until the middle of the 20th century. In the subsequent dynasties, South China expanded farming and added new crops, but the model there was still established in the Song Dynasty, and it was not accompanied by many technological fundamental changes. "

Arnold toynbee, a famous American scholar, said in Man and Mother Earth: "Later barbarians in10th century,10th century and12nd century were also strongly attracted by Chinese civilization. In addition to adopting Chinese civilization by themselves, they also spread Chinese civilization in the territory they ruled, which was never included in the territory of the Chinese empire. Therefore, the contraction of the Chinese empire was compensated by the expansion of Chinese civilization-not only the countries that rose around the Chinese empire, but also in North Korea and Japan. "

McNeill, an American historian, said in The Pursuit of Power: "The book assumes that China turned to market regulation around 1000, subverting a key balance in world history. I believe that the example of China has initiated the exploration of human beings for thousands of years, and from the perspective of price and self-interest of private or small groups (partnerships or companies), find out what results will be achieved by coordinating large-scale behaviors. "

The Northern Song Dynasty was praised by Americans as the "leader" of the second millennium at the end of the 20th century. Japanese historian Naito Hunan believes that "the Tang Dynasty was the end of the Middle Ages in China, and the Song Dynasty was the beginning of modern times in China." French scholar Edena called the Song Dynasty "the dawn of modern times". Aidina balaz, a French scholar, a famous sinologist and the pioneer of international studies on the history of the Song Dynasty, clearly pointed out: "The characteristics of the feudal society in China have matured in the Song Dynasty; China's modern new factors were obviously presented in the Song Dynasty. Therefore, studying the history of the Song Dynasty will help solve a series of major problems in the early modern China. " ……

The study of China people in Song Dynasty is far from enough, so most people in China don't know enough about Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the pinnacle of China civilization. Now people in China don't know the greatness of their ancestors, and they don't know why China fell behind. Now China is in a mess of self-confidence ... Now some intellectuals in China will call it Greece and Rome, which is actually the sorrow of China! At present, China people's suspicion and denial of China's traditional civilization and worship of loyalty once lagged behind many of our western civilizations. 1 1, 12,13rd century, the west is far behind China in politics, science and technology, culture, economy and military affairs. Why does China fall behind? It is not the stagnation and corruption of China's traditional civilization itself. In fact, the answer is very simple, that is, the crazy destruction of barbaric and backward ethnic groups interrupted our progress. As the famous French sinologist Cheyenne said in "Introduction to Daily Life in China on the Eve of Mongolian Invasion", "The invasion of Mongols dealt a heavy blow to the Great China Empire, which was the richest and most advanced country in the world at that time. On the eve of the Mongolian invasion, Chinese civilization was at its peak in many aspects, but it was completely destroyed in history because of this invasion. "

The so-called achievements and glories of the Yuan Dynasty were left over from the Song Dynasty, plundered and not created by themselves. The Yuan Dynasty began to ban the sea and night markets, which led to the loss of vitality of people's livelihood and the retrogression of China's business. The Mongols turned fertile land into pastoral areas and built horse farms all over the territory, even in Huaibei. After hundreds of years of construction, the fertile farmland of water conservancy in Song Dynasty turned into grassland, which led to the great retrogression of agriculture in China. The policies and measures of the Yuan Dynasty were obviously retrogressive and declining. It was the Mongols and Manchu in primitive society that dragged China back to semi-feudal and semi-slave society again and again, which was advancing towards the capital society. Without the interference and destruction of primitive barbarians, Chinese civilization would have developed long ago, and China was still far ahead of the world.

Tang Zhen, a civilian thinker in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, summed up the social and economic situation of China in the prosperous forty years of Kangxi:

(According to Japanese scholars' research, the middle period of Kangxi was the period with the highest per capita GDP in the prosperous period of Kanggan. Since then, under the pressure of population, China's per capita GDP has been declining. )

Qingxing has been in business for more than fifty years. Within the four seas, poverty is increasing: agricultural air, industrial air, urban air and official air. The grain is cheap and hard to eat, the cloth is cheap and hard to dress, the ship turns to the market and the goods are folded, and the official goes without thinking about home. Money, so everything is necessary. Middle-class families can't get by without a gold and money for ten days. So the farmers were hungry and cold, the department store died, the good years were fierce, and good people didn't raise it. Walking in the city, you will be proud of yourself and ashamed of yourself. When I got home, I was smokeless in the morning and curled up when I was cold. Wuzhong people, many men and many women are far away, the beauty of men is the best, and evil is the slave. The beauty of a woman is a concubine, and evil is a maid, which is universal.

Look at the memories of westerners.

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, western missionaries were still praising China for its rich natural products and its material production capacity far exceeding that of Europe, claiming that "Ming people" were "well dressed and personable". However, in the Diary of Madzar, the British envoy during the Qianlong period, he said: "Since the Tatar conquest in the north or the Manchu Dynasty, at least in the past 150 years, there has been no improvement, no progress, or retrogression. When we advance in the field of art and science every day, they are actually becoming semi-barbarians. " 〔[ 10]

And Wu, The Germination of Capitalism in China (People's Publishing House, 1985), chapter 4, section 1. In Magalny's eyes, the prosperity of Kanggan is like this ... "There is amazing poverty everywhere", "People are in rags, even naked", "The army is in rags like beggars" ... "All the rubbish we throw away is eaten by people."

Ming dynasty in the eyes of missionaries at the end of Ming dynasty

/kloc-At the end of 0/6, Europeans learned about China mainly through the first part of History of Greater China. In Mendoza's pen:

(1) China is an ancient civilization with a vast territory, and China people call themselves "gentle people". The whole country is divided into 15 provinces (Zhongshu province in Ming Dynasty was changed to undertake propaganda department, and its territory was divided into South Zhili and North Zhili,

13, secretary of the Ministry of Public Affairs and Political Affairs, often referred to as 15 provinces-the author), "Every province is bigger than the European countries we are familiar with".

(2) China has a perfect road network connecting towns. The road surface is flat and wide, and the "official road" can accommodate 15 people riding in parallel. The roadside shops are lined with trees, just like the avenues in Roman times. Some cities are connected by waterways, such as Venice. Beijing is the largest city in the world.

(3) China people are rich in architectural talents. Building materials are unparalleled in the world. The square (brick) made of "white mud" is so hard that it can only be smashed with a hoe. The house is like a manor. The most magnificent building in China is the Great Wall, which is 500 leagues long.

5572 meters) was built to defend the Tatars.

(4) China is rich in natural products. There are many kinds of vegetables than in Spain. There are only three varieties of oranges, which are sweet, sour and moderately sweet and sour. Sugar is of good texture, white and low price. Silk is bright in color, and its quality exceeds that of Granada, Spain. "The prices of velvet, silk and cloth are so low that people familiar with the prices of textiles in Spain and Italy will be surprised." People in China usually wear silk clothes. Farmland in China is well managed. There is not a piece of abandoned land. Pieces of farmland are scattered like gardens. Mineral resources are also rich. "This is the richest country in the world with very low prices."

(5) Handicrafts produced in China are extremely exquisite. 1582, the Spanish king was delighted to get China sheets, and Philip II marveled at the ingenious weaving. Many Spanish craftsmen came to watch and learn from them. China is very cheap. Europeans think it is made of crushed shells. The most exquisite porcelain is a tribute, as thin as glass.

(6) China's commerce is developed and prosperous. Each street often operates only one kind of industry. When you see the first shop, you will know what goods are sold in this street. The craftsmanship of artisans in China has been handed down from generation to generation. There are many kinds of currencies in China. Gold and silver are used by weight, but gold coins or silver coins have no certain style.

(7) China's army consists of infantry and cavalry. China has warships, which can take 600 ships in four days. China has more soldiers than Europe and is in a balanced position in equipment.

Emperor China has full power to rule the country. Administrative officials at all levels exercise their powers effectively. They were produced through the imperial examinations. China has complete laws. Officials and nobles go out across the bridge, while women never engage in social activities outside. China is full of feasts. China people have their own musical instruments.

(9) China has a long history. Have a unique education system. All kinds of books are very rich. The people of China are rich in civilization and education.

(10) The people of China have made great achievements in science and technology. Europeans have always been proud of the application of printing. "However, China people as early as German Johannes Gutenberg (Joan

Gutenberg invented printing 500 years ago, and used it to print books. Mendoza believes that printing was introduced to Germany through the Russian Grand Duchy of Moscow. But he did not deny another possibility, that is, China's books spread to Europe by sea (Red Sea), which inspired Johannes Gutenberg. In particular, Mendoza pointed out that among all China's inventions, what shocked the Portuguese and other Westerners most was that China also had guns, and they had already used them before Europeans. However, Europeans have totally different views on the effectiveness of China's artillery. Rada thinks China artillery is old and crude. Another captain, Attida, wrote in a letter to the Spanish king ... that China used the same weapons as us. Their cannon is very sophisticated, and the barrel is more delicate and stronger than ours. "Because Mendoza has never been to China, he did not make his own judgment on the above ambiguous places, but he also quoted the latter as saying:" China has strong walls, surrounded by deep trenches (which can be filled with river water in an emergency), and the gates are equipped with cannons. China people think this is the best defense. On the city wall, officers lead soldiers to guard day and night. Without the approval of the highest authority in the city, no foreigner can approach the city. " Mendoza's quotation about the fortification of China city is by no means aimless. This actually shows that he thinks China artillery is very powerful. In addition, Mendoza introduced China's shipbuilding and papermaking technologies, and pointed out its advantages over Europe.

Cruz also praised China's scientific and technological achievements in the history books of China. Mendoza obviously quoted many viewpoints of Cruz, and made a more comprehensive introduction to the level of scientific and technological development in China, with a higher evaluation. Cruise, like China's shipbuilding level, emphatically introduced the huge scale of China's fleet, and even metaphorically said that Emperor China could build a bridge between China and Malacca by boat, and explained the types of ships in China and the application of keel waterwheels. In addition to the above, Mendoza further elaborated the seaming technology of shipbuilding in China. Because the additives used in the joints are very reasonable, which are not only waterproof but also insect-proof, the service life of China ships is twice that of Europe. When talking about printing in China, Cruise only mentioned that printing has been used in China for 900 years. As mentioned above, Mendoza expounded the ins and outs of printing in China and the route of printing spreading to the west. On the application of firearms in China, Mendoza also sent more information to westerners. The level of science and technology is an important symbol to measure the comprehensive national strength of a country and a nation. Mendoza's objective evaluation of China's scientific and technological level undoubtedly played an important role in understanding and understanding China in the West.

"Their house is well designed, convenient for accommodation, clean and comfortable."

"They grow a lot of vegetables for people to eat all year round." "They have plenty of meat all over the country, even in small villages and towns. The meat they eat most often all year round is pork, and beef is boneless for sale. Their venison is rare and they don't like it very much. "

"Most of China's best goods are shipped from here, because it is the most open and free trading place in China. Not to mention all kinds of goods shipped by indigenous people and foreigners from six neighboring countries, only goods shipped from Portugal to India, Japan and Manila, there are about 5,300 boxes of all kinds of silk every year, each box contains 100 silk, velvet satin, satin, semi-flowered satin and other light materials, colored single-layer line segments, and

250 gold, 2200 gold ingots, each weighing 12 ounce. In addition, there are porcelain plates, gold-plated utensils, sugar, China wood, rhubarb, musk, ... Even if the list is long, you can't call the roll. "

"(Zhejiang) is the best source of commodity trends in China, surpassing many other provinces in terms of wealth. Its specialty is silk, whether raw silk or finished products, cocoons or raw materials, are shipped to various places. In short, the silk exported from China is produced in this province. "

"The last of the nine southern provinces is Nanjing, ... which is one of the best provinces in China and the essence of the whole country. ..... Its western region is the richest, rich in cotton yarn ... There are 200,000 looms in Xiannei City and its affiliated areas alone. ..... Because the loom is small, there are often many sets in a room, and almost all people engaged in this industry are women. "

"Nanjing ... I think it is the largest and best city in China, with excellent architecture, wide streets, elegant people and rich and excellent goods. It has amazing amusement places and a large population ... Crowds can be seen everywhere, and the streets are difficult to pass. In addition, countless palaces, temples, towers and bridges make the city look very grand. "

"China people are naturally good at doing business, not only from one province to another, but also in the same city. Almost everything in the shop is sold on the street. ..... wealthy businessmen have good credit and punctuality (the Portuguese experience for many years proves this). "

"China people readily praise any virtue of neighboring countries, and they don't have enough courage to support themselves, while people in other countries don't like anything but their own. When Chinese people saw the products from Europe, they gave a sigh of admiration, although these products were not exquisite. ..... This humility is really admirable, especially in a nation that can surpass others. It is a shame for those who are as blind as a bat and deliberately belittle what they see.