Ask for the geography review outline or review materials for the eighth grade geography and biology senior high school entrance examination.

Review points of biology exam in grade two of junior high school

Unit 1: Biology and Biosphere

1, the same characteristics of organisms: plant nutrition: most of them make organic matter through photosynthesis; Animal nutrition: Get ready-made nutrition from outside.

2) living things can breathe.

3) Organisms can excrete wastes from their bodies.

The way animals excrete waste: sweating, exhaling and urinating.

The way plants excrete waste: fallen leaves.

4) Organisms can respond to external stimuli. Exodus: The zebra flees quickly after discovering the enemy's harm. The response of mimosa to stimulation.

5) Organisms can grow and reproduce.

6) All living things are made up of cells except viruses.

2. Scope of the biosphere: the bottom of the atmosphere, most of the hydrosphere and the surface of the lithosphere.

3. The biosphere provides basic conditions for living things: nutrients, sunlight, air and water, suitable temperature and a certain living space.

4. Environmental factors affecting biological survival:

Abiotic factors: light, temperature, moisture, etc. Biological factors: other organisms that affect the life of a certain organism.

Exodus: Ladybug septempunctata preys on aphids, which is a predatory relationship. Weeds and rice in rice fields compete for sunlight, which is a competitive relationship. Division and cooperation of family members of ants and bees.

5. Exploration: the influence of light on the life of rat and girl.

1) Question: Will light affect the life of female rats?

2) Make a hypothesis: light will affect the life of a female rat.

3) Make a plan: to test whether the hypothesis is correct, we need to explore it through experiments.

The experimental scheme requires that a control experiment needs to be designed, and illumination is the only variable in this inquiry experiment. Other conditions are the same.

4) Implementation plan

5) Draw a conclusion

6) Expression and communication

6, biological adaptation and the impact on the environment:

1) Example of biological adaptation to the environment: Camels in the desert have little urine. The underground roots of Alhagi are much longer than the aboveground parts. Seals in cold seas, thick subcutaneous fat on the chest, flag trees, etc.

2) Biological impact on the environment: Earthworms move in the soil, which can loosen the soil, and their feces increase the fertility of the soil; Sand plants such as windbreak and sand fixation belong to the biological influence environment.

7. Concept and composition of ecosystem

Concept: The unified whole formed by biology and environment in a certain area is called ecosystem.

Composition: including biological part and abiotic part. The biological part includes producers, consumers and decomposers. Abiotic parts include sunlight, water, air, temperature, etc.

8, food chain and food web:

The relationship between producers and consumers is mainly the relationship between eating and being eaten, thus forming a food chain. There are often many food chains in an ecosystem, which often cross each other to form a food web.

Review outline of junior high school geography knowledge

1, the shape and size of the earth The earth is an irregular sphere with slightly flattened poles, with an average diameter of 637 1 meter.

2. Latitude and Latitude On the globe, the area around the globe in the east-west direction is called latitude. All latitudes are circles, which can be called latitude circles; The length of latitude circle is long or short, the equator is the longest, it gradually shortens to the poles and finally reaches a point. The latitude represents the east and west directions.

The equator is the longest latitude, about 40 thousand kilometers long. It is equal to the distance between the two poles and divides the earth into two hemispheres. The equator is zero latitude on the earth. The latitude north of the equator is called north latitude, and it is customary to use "n" as the code name; The latitude south of the equator, called south latitude, is customarily represented by "S".

3. Meridian and Longitude On the globe, the line connecting the north and south poles and perpendicular to the latitude is called meridian, also called meridian. All meridians are semicircular; They are all of the same length, indicating the north-south direction.

The zero meridian on the earth is called the prime meridian. It is divided into 1800 from the prime meridian to the east and west. 1800 in the east belongs to east longitude, so it is customary to use "e" as the code, and 1800 in the west belongs to west longitude, so it is customary to use "w" as the code.

It is customary in the world to use warp circles of 200W and 1600E as the dividing line between the eastern and western hemispheres.

4. the rotation of the earth and the alternation of day and night. the earth keeps rotating around its axis, which is called the rotation of the earth. The direction of the earth's rotation is from west to east. It takes about 24 hours to turn around, which is one day. In this way, the phenomenon of alternating day and night is produced.

5. The revolution of the earth and seasonal changes The earth revolves around the sun while rotating. The direction of the earth's revolution is also from west to east, and the time of revolution is one year. The orbital plane always keeps an angle of 66.5 with the earth axis. Because of the revolution of the earth, there are seasonal changes.

6. The division of five zones The tropics are between the Tropic of Cancer, with direct sunlight in a year, and the ground gets the most sunlight and heat, and the climate is hot all year round. The Tropic of Cancer is the dividing line between tropical and temperate zones.

The cold zone is located in the area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, and it is extreme day and night. Polar circle is the dividing line between cold zone and temperate zone. In temperate regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and between the Tropic of Cancer and the Antarctic Circle, there are no extreme days and nights in a year, and the solar light and heat obtained on the ground are less than those in tropical regions and more than those in cold regions, and the climate changes obviously in the four seasons.

7. Scale, legend and notes of the three elements of the map. The smaller the area drawn on the map, the more detailed the content to be represented and the larger the scale to be selected; On the contrary, the smaller the scale. On the map, it is usually "up north and down south, left west and right east"

8. Calculation method of ground height The vertical distance above sea level in a certain place on the ground is called altitude. The vertical distance from one place to another is called relative height.

9. Contour lines connect points with the same altitude, which is the contour line. Each contour line has a corresponding height value. Where the slope is steep, the contour lines are dense; Where the slope is gentle, the contour lines are sparse.

10, land and sea distribution in the world. The ocean area accounts for 7 1% of the earth, and the land area only accounts for 29%. The mainland and its nearby islands are called the mainland. The northern hemisphere is Europe and North America. most

People used to regard the Urals, ural river and the Great Caucasus as the dividing lines between Europe and Asia. The Suez Canal separates Asia from Africa. North America and South America are in the Western Hemisphere, called America. The Panama Canal is the dividing line between North America and South America. Antarctica is mainly located in the Antarctic circle, surrounded by the ocean.

1 1. land topography people divide the terrain into five basic types: mountains, plains, plateaus, basins and hills.

The altitude of mountainous areas is relatively high, generally more than 500 meters, with undulating peaks and steep slopes, and some mountainous areas are distributed in strips. Among them, the most prominent are two huge mountain systems composed of several tall mountains: one is the Alps-Himalayas mountain system across the south-central part of the Eurasian continent; The other is the Cordillera mountain system, which runs through North and South America, and consists of Rocky Mountain, Andes Mountain and other mountains.

The altitude of the plain is low, generally below 200 meters, and the ground is flat or undulating. It is often used to describe the "endless" elegance of the plain. The largest plain in the world is the Amazon Plain in South America.

The terrain in Europe and Africa is relatively simple, mainly plains and plateaus; The terrain in Asia is complex, with high terrain in the middle and low periphery, wide plateaus and mountains, and plains distributed around the mainland.

12. The forces that push the terrain change are called internal forces, such as crustal movement, volcano, earthquake, etc., which are all manifestations of the internal forces of the earth. Volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are mostly distributed in areas with active crustal activity, mainly concentrated in the Pacific Rim and the Mediterranean-Himalayan Mountains. Forces from outside the earth are called external forces, such as running water, wind, waves and glaciers.

13, weather climate weather is the atmospheric condition of a place in a short time, such as sunny, rainy, hot and cold. It is always changing. Climate is the average weather condition of a place for many years, which generally changes little.

14, the temperature changes during the day, and the temperature is sometimes high and sometimes low. The highest temperature on land usually appears in the afternoon (about14); The lowest temperature appears around sunrise. In a year, the monthly average maximum temperature in most parts of the world appears in July in the northern hemisphere and 65438+ 10 in the southern hemisphere. The monthly average minimum temperature appears in 1 in the northern hemisphere and in July in the southern hemisphere. The difference between the highest monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly average temperature in a place is called annual range.

15, the world temperature distribution, the world temperature gradually decreases from low latitude to polar regions; At the same latitude, the temperatures of the ocean and the land are different. In summer, the land temperature is high and the ocean temperature is low. Winter is the opposite. The temperature is also affected by the terrain. As the altitude increases in mountainous areas, the temperature will gradually decrease. About every increase of 100 m, the temperature will drop by 0.6℃.

16, the general law of global precipitation distribution: there is more precipitation near the equator; Less precipitation in polar regions; On both sides of the Tropic of Cancer, there is less precipitation on the west coast of the mainland and more precipitation on the east coast of the mainland; There is more precipitation in mid-latitude coastal areas and less precipitation in inland areas.

17, seasonal variation of precipitation: rainy areas throughout the year: there is more precipitation near the equator, such as Singapore; There is no rain all year round: there is little monthly precipitation in inland areas and polar regions, such as Cairo, Egypt; Rainy areas in summer: the east coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in summer and rainy in winter, such as China; Rainy areas in winter: the west coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in winter and rainy in summer, such as Rome, Italy; Perennial humid area: on the west coast of the mainland at 400 ~ 600 north latitude, the area affected by the westerly wind from the ocean all the year round is humid every month with moderate rainfall, such as London, England.

18, main climate types and distribution in the world

I. Main tropical climate types

1. The tropical rain forest climate is mainly distributed near the equator, with high temperature and rainy all year round.

2. The tropical grassland climate is mainly distributed in the north and south sides of the equatorial rainforest climate in Africa and South America. It is hot all year round, with obvious dry season and rainy season.

3. The tropical monsoon climate is most obvious in the Indian Peninsula and Indochina Peninsula in the south and southeast of Asia. This climate is hot all year round, and a year can also be divided into dry season and rainy season, and the wind direction changes with the seasons. In dry season, the wind blows from land to sea, and there is little rain; In the rainy season, the wind blows from the ocean to the land, and the precipitation is concentrated.

4. The tropical desert climate is mainly distributed in the west coast and inland areas of the mainland near the Tropic of Cancer. This climate is characterized by scarce precipitation, hot and dry all year round, and a large desert on the ground.

Second, the main climate types in temperate zone

1, temperate and subtropical monsoon climate, distributed in eastern Asia. Summer is hot and rainy, and winter is cold and dry. Roughly bounded by the isotherm of 65438+ 10, the average temperature in June is 0℃, with temperate monsoon climate in the north and subtropical monsoon climate in the south.

2. The Mediterranean climate is mainly located in the middle and low latitudes on the west coast of the mainland, with the most distribution along the Mediterranean coast, hot and dry in summer and mild and rainy in winter.

3. Temperate continental climate is mainly distributed in mid-latitude inland areas, with intense heat in winter, great temperature change, less precipitation and concentrated in summer.

4. The temperate maritime climate is located on the west coast of the mid-latitude continent, which is the most widely distributed in western Europe, mild and rainy, and the annual changes of temperature and precipitation are relatively small.

19. Land, sunshine, water, minerals, forests, etc. Resources that are valuable to human beings are all natural resources. According to the characteristics of its formation, it can be divided into two categories: one is renewable resources; First, non-renewable resources. Renewable resources refer to resources that can be regenerated or recovered in a short time; Non-renewable resources refer to resources that cannot be produced after being used up in human history.

20. Land use types Land use types can be divided into cultivated land, woodland, grassland and construction land.

2 1, the distribution of land resources is flat and warm in the temperate humid plain, which is suitable for developing agriculture and is the main distribution area of cultivated land in the world. Large areas of coniferous forests and rainforests are preserved in the cold and humid sub-frigid zone and the hot and rainy tropical zone. Tropical and temperate semi-arid areas have vast grasslands, which are the main distribution areas of animal husbandry in the world.

22. The distribution of water resources on the earth There are three main forms of water on the earth: sea water, land water and atmospheric water. There are many forms of land water, such as glacier water, groundwater, lake water, swamp water, river water and biological water. There is a lot of water on the earth, but more than 96% is seawater. Among the fresh water resources, glaciers store the most water, and now people use a lot of fresh water resources, mainly river water, lake water (fresh water lake water) and part of groundwater. The main ways to protect water resources are: saving and rational use of water and reducing the waste of water resources; Preventing and controlling water pollution; Afforestation to prevent soil erosion; Desalinate seawater and expand fresh water sources.

23. The forest in Nature's General Dispatching Room has the functions of regulating atmospheric composition, purifying air, implicating water sources, increasing air humidity, protecting fields from wind and maintaining soil and water. Therefore, people call the forest "the general adjustment room of nature". There are 4 billion hectares of forests in the world, mainly coniferous forests and broad-leaved forests. Most of the global forest resources are distributed in the northern hemisphere.

24. Distribution of iron, coal and oil The distribution of iron, coal and oil in the world is as follows:

1. Iron ore in the world is mainly distributed in Russia, Malaysia, China, Australia, India, Canada and the United States. These seven countries account for about 90% of the world's iron reserves.

2. Coal is mainly distributed in Eurasia and central North America in the northern hemisphere. Among the countries in the world, China, the United States, Russian and other countries have the highest coal reserves in the world.

3. The distribution of world oil resources is very concentrated, and the Middle East accounts for more than half of the world oil reserves. Mainly exported to Japan, Europe and North America.

25. World Population Growth The world population growth rate is different, especially on all continents. Africa is the fastest growing continent in the world, followed by South America, and Europe is the slowest. 2% in Europe; Asia15%; North America is10%; South America is17%; Oceania is14%; Africa is 27%.

26. The migration of the world population after World War II, the scale of population migration became smaller, and population migration mainly took three forms. The first type is scientific and technological migration, that is, a large number of high-quality talents flow from developing countries to developed countries. The second is the export of labor force. The basic direction of foreign labor flow is from developing countries to developed countries, from poor countries to rich oil exporting countries, and from densely populated families to sparsely populated countries. The third is international refugee migration.

27. The most densely populated areas in the world are in eastern and southern Asia, Europe and eastern North America, and the densely populated areas are mainly located in the plains near the middle and low latitudes. In cold tundra zone, ice sheet belt, vast cold coniferous forest belt, undeveloped tropical rain forest belt, arid desert area, high plateau, mountainous area and sparsely populated area.

28. Population migration to cities and its problems. The proportion of urban population to a country's total population is often one of the criteria to measure a country's development level. More than 70% of the population in developed countries is urban, while the urban population in developing countries accounts for just over 30% of the population. Nowadays, the phenomenon of large-scale migration of rural population to cities mainly occurs in developing countries.

29. White people in the world are generally light in skin color, eyes and hair color, with wavy hair, high nose, thin lips and much body hair. They are mainly distributed in Europe, North America and Oceania. Yellow people have light yellow or brownish black skin, straight black hair, flat face and medium body hair. They are mainly distributed in East Asia. Black people have dark skin, curly hair, thick lips and little body hair. They are mainly distributed in Africa, Oceania and the United States.

30. Countries in the world There are more than 65,438+090 countries in the world, and the famous countries have different areas. Russia has the largest area, exceeding170,000 square kilometers. China ranks third with an area of about 9.6 million square kilometers. The smallest is the Vatican.

3 1. Land, territorial sea, territorial waters and airspace within national boundaries and territorial boundaries are collectively referred to as territory. Argentina and Chile in South America are bounded by the Andes; The east of the United States and Canada is bounded by the center of the lake, while the west is bounded by latitude and longitude.

32. The world's buried areas are divided into 13 regions. See page 83 of volume one for the picture.

See page 85 for an overview of East Asia. East Asia is located in the east of Asia and the west of the Pacific Ocean, including China, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia, Japan and other countries. Animal husbandry plays an important role in Mongolia. Japan is a country with developed modern industry. East Asia is one of the regions with the most remarkable monsoon climate in the world. In winter, northerly winds prevail, and the wind blows from the cold Siberian and Mongolian plateaus to the Pacific Ocean. Due to the strong wind, the climate in most areas is cold and dry. In summer, southerly winds prevail, and the wind brings abundant precipitation from the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, and the precipitation decreases from the coast to the inland, and the climate is hot. In the East Asian monsoon climate zone, according to the difference of temperature and precipitation, it can be divided into temperate monsoon climate zone and subtropical monsoon climate zone. The former has an average temperature of 65438+ 10 below 0℃ and a short rainy season. In the latter, the average temperature was above 0℃ in June 5438+10, and the rainy season was longer.

34. Population and Economy in East Asia East Asia is the main distribution area of yellow people in the world, and most of the residents are yellow people. East Asia is one of the fastest growing and most dynamic regions in the world.

35. Japan's Natural and Geographical Features Japan is an island country in East Asia. Its territory consists of four big islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, and some small islands. It is relatively small and densely populated. Japan is mountainous, more than three quarters of its territory is mountainous and hilly, and the Kanto Plain near Tokyo Bay is the largest plain in Japan. Kobe and Yokohama on the Pacific coast of Honshu Island are famous seaports in China. The Japanese archipelago is located in the volcanic seismic belt around the Pacific Ocean, and there are many volcanoes. Mount Fuji is one of the famous active volcanoes and the highest mountain in Japan. Japan's monsoon climate has maritime characteristics. Compared with places at the same latitude in the Asian continent, it is warmer in winter, cooler in summer and more abundant in precipitation. Most parts of the country are covered with forests, and the rivers in mountainous areas are short and urgent, with abundant water resources. But mineral resources are scarce. See P90 in Volume I for the picture.

36. Japan's economy Japan's largest trade target is the United States, followed by Asia and Western Europe. Kobe and Yokohama are the two largest foreign trade ports in Japan. The trade between Japan and China has developed greatly. Commodities imported from China include clothing, oil, coal, cotton, aquatic products and vegetables. Commodities exported to China include steel, electronic products and other industrial products.

Japanese industry is mainly distributed in the narrow strip along the Pacific coast and the Seto Inland Sea coast. Tokyo, the capital, is located in the south of Kanto Plain and on the northwest bank of Tokyo Bay. The sea area near Hokkaido, Japan is a famous fishing ground in the world. Japan's fishing capacity often ranks first in the world. Now rice production can be self-sufficient. But vegetables and fruits still need to be imported.

37. For southeast asia map, see Volume I, page 94. Southeast Asia is located in the southeast of Asia, including Indochina Peninsula and Malay Archipelago. The southern part of Indochina Peninsula is long and narrow, extending to the equator, and is called Malay Peninsula. Countries in Southeast Asia are all coastal countries or island countries except Laos, which is a landlocked country. The largest area is Indonesia. The Territory consists of more than 65,438+03,000 islands, making it the largest archipelagic country in the world. It is the country with the most volcanic activity in the world. Therefore, it is called "the country of volcanoes". The southern part of the Malay Peninsula and most parts of the Malay Archipelago are located near the equator and belong to the tropical rainforest climate. Indo-China Peninsula and northern Philippine Islands belong to tropical monsoon climate.

38. Residents and Economy Indonesia is the most populous country in Southeast Asia, with more than half of its population distributed in Java Island. Southeast Asia is the most concentrated area of Chinese and overseas Chinese, and most of their ancestors are residents of China, Guangdong and Fujian. Southeast Asia is the world's largest producer of tropical cash crops such as natural rubber, palm oil, coconut, banana hemp, etc. Most of the residents in various countries live on rice. Tin and oil are the most important minerals in Southeast Asia. Singapore is called "Garden City".

39. For the map of South Asia, see Volume I, P 108. South Asia is the birthplace of Buddhism and Hinduism. There are towering Himalayas in northern South Asia. This part is called "South Asian subcontinent". The central plain alluvial by the Indus River and Ganges River is the main agricultural area and densely populated area in South Asia. Most of the Indian Peninsula is occupied by Deccan Plateau. Precipitation in South Asia is affected by monsoon, and the southwest monsoon prevails from June to September every year, which is the rainy season. From June 65438 to May of the following year, the northwest monsoon prevailed, which was a dry season.

40. India has a vast area of cultivated land and is the largest country in Asia. The main food crops in India are rice and wheat, and the cash crops are cotton, tea and jute. The main minerals in India are coal, iron and manganese. Mainly distributed in the northeast of Deccan Plateau. The capital, New Delhi. Calcutta is rich in jute, which is the textile industry center and important seaport of India. It is one of the most populous cities in India. Located on the west coast, Mumbai is India's largest seaport and cotton textile industry center.

4 1, Central Asia Central Asia is located in the middle of the Eurasian continent and lives in Asia. The terrain is dominated by hills and plains. Most rivers in Central Asia are inland rivers. The west is close to the Caspian Sea, the largest inland lake in the world. Pastures in south-central Asia are the third largest cotton-producing base in the world, second only to China and the United States. Uzbekistan is known as the "Platinum Country" because it is rich in cotton. Livestock are mainly fine wool sheep and lamb skin sheep. At the same time, mining, metallurgy and military industries are also quite developed.

42. West Asia and North Africa West Asia and North Africa are located at the junction of Asia, Europe and Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean, and their geographical position is very important. The Dead Sea Lake is -400 meters above sea level, which is the lowest point on the land surface in the world. Most areas have a tropical desert climate. The highest temperature in the world was recorded in Aziziyah, Libya, North Africa (57.8℃). Generally, precipitation is scarce. Only the Mediterranean coast has a typical Mediterranean climate.

43. The Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the world. It starts from the Atlantic coast in the west, the Red Sea coast in the east, the Mediterranean coast in the north and the savanna in Sudan in the south, accounting for about 1/4 of Africa. There is high temperature and little rain all the year round, plants are scarce, and there is rich oil under the desert.

44. Arabs and Islam West Asia and North Africa are multi-ethnic regions, mainly white. Common Arabic, these countries are called "Arab countries". West Asia is the birthplace of Islam, Christianity and Judaism. The city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia is called the Holy City of Islam. Jerusalem is regarded as the holy city by Islam, Christianity and Judaism.

45. Kuwait and North Africa, the world's largest oil producers, are the regions that produce and export the most oil. West Asia is centered on the Persian Gulf, forming a huge oil belt. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait and Iraq are the main oil producers in West Asia. Oil reserves account for about 1/2 of the world's total oil reserves, and production accounts for about 1/4 of the total output. The oil produced is mainly exported to western Europe, the United States, Japan and other countries and regions. Morocco's phosphate reserves account for 3/4 of the world.

46. The date palm is the representative plant of oasis agriculture.

47. Pakistan, located on the west side of Arabian Peninsula, is the transportation hub of Europe, Asia and Africa. Develop drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation technology.

48. Egypt is located in the Sinai Peninsula in Africa and northeast Asia, and it is also the territory of Egypt. More than 90% of the whole territory is desert, and cultivated land, population and cities are mainly concentrated in the narrow plains along the Nile River and its estuary delta where it enters the sea. The Nile, with a total length of more than 6,600 kilometers, is the longest river in the world, originating from the eastern plateau of Africa.