Kneeling: the influence of mercantilism in the late Qing Dynasty

Mercantilism is actually a manifestation of nationalism at the economic level. The nation-state is the basis of mercantilist intervention policy [3 1]. The wave of mercantilism in China in the late Qing Dynasty was indeed inseparable from the modern nationalist trend of thought that arose at that time. Among them, economic nationalism can be said to be the core of mercantilism in the late Qing Dynasty, and "commercial war" is its loudest slogan.

1. The rise of economic nationalism

Nationalism means a high degree of loyalty to the country, putting national interests above those of individuals or other groups. In essence, it is a psychological state in which the nation is the highest object of personal loyalty. As an imaginary isomorphism of * * *, the creation of "nation" is regarded by Walter bagehot as the core key to the historical development of19th century. Bai's words seem to be aimed at Europe and America, but for China in the 20th century, nationalism is still the most important driving force for political evolution, and several important regime changes are actually due to nationalism. 〔34〕

Since the late Qing Dynasty, nationalism has flourished in China society, especially in the economic aspect [35]. Commentators often use the word "economic nationalism". Generally speaking, the specific meaning of this word mainly includes two aspects: advocating to recover or resist foreign occupation or erode domestic economic sovereignty; Internally, vigorously promote industrial revitalization and actively promote economic modernization. [36] The most concrete manifestation of China's modern economic nationalism is the recovery of railway and mineral rights and the boycott of foreign goods. [37] The recovery of interests and the boycott of foreign goods have increased the nationalist sentiment of Chinese people. At 19 10, some people even associate the purchase of foreign goods with national subjugation. When they see someone trying to imitate the European style, they sigh "especially the national subjugation". [38] It has become a consensus to link rights with sovereignty [39], and economic competition has also become a term in the mouth of some intellectuals [40].

China's economic nationalism rose around 1904. This is not only related to the internal and external political and economic changes, but also related to the domestic political, social and economic policy system changes, so that "gentry and businessmen" can foresee the huge profits that new enterprises may bring, and the economic nationalism movement has changed from slogans to practice. [4 1] In the railway protection movement, the trend of economic xenophobia is closely combined with the forces of localism and local advisory groups [42], and personal self-interest consciousness is also mixed [43]. The so-called "redemption right" is not necessarily aimed at outsiders, but may also be aimed at the people of the whole country or even the province. [44] Therefore, Ruan did not agree to call the economic nationalist movement of1903-1911a "patriotic" movement. He believes that in the value system of "gentry businessmen", the combination of personal interests and national interests is not absolute, but probable. Once unprofitable, you can give up land and sovereignty at any time; Once for personal benefit, you can also sell land and sovereignty. 〔45〕

However, it is misleading to take "patriotism" as the standard to judge businessmen's economic behavior. It is understandable that investors aim at profit. Besides, how can businessmen have the final say in selling land and sovereignty? Taking this as a standard, we can only go further and further until we abolish private property rights and step into state domination. Businessmen's poor performance in the movement can only be said that in the case of the existence of interest space, the definition of property rights is not good and there is no corresponding supporting system to regulate it. Compradors or businessmen investing in domestic enterprises may be out of interest in saving the country through industry, may be purely based on interests, or may be both. Their motives are actually indistinguishable. However, from the information left by some businessmen, we can still see that some comprador or businessmen really have national consciousness for a long time. However, the government's industrial and commercial policies and investment environment are also important influencing factors for businessmen to set up new enterprises. Of course, when patriotism is high, if businessmen take "profit demand" as the public goal of investing in new enterprises or participating in the movement to recover railway and mining rights, it is naturally difficult to get responses from other social classes. Therefore, using the slogan of economic nationalism is another business strategy of modern businessmen. Among them, "commercial war" is undoubtedly the loudest slogan.

2. "Commercial War"-a double-edged sword in the hands of businessmen

"Commercial War" is the direct expression of economic nationalism and the loudest slogan in the wave of mercantilism. The word "commercial war" was first put forward by Zeng Guofan according to Wang's textual research, and Zheng made a relatively complete statement. [48] He believes that the understanding and presentation of the concept of commercial warfare is mainly due to intellectuals from the traditional Hakka background. However, it seems to have become the common language of China people. When "commercial war" becomes a common word in the media, businessmen will naturally use it. Shouting "commercial war" may be beneficial to the business of businessmen. First of all, they take "commercial war" as the slogan, emphasizing competition with foreign powers. The most important thing is to increase exports through trade and industrial and mining production, expel foreign goods in the domestic market and replace them with domestic products. Therefore, the "Chinese goods movement" has become a lasting hobby of businessmen. Secondly, businessmen use the slogan of "commercial war" as lobbying capital to obtain industrial support or subsidies from the government. In the late Qing dynasty, the government issued a series of policies to protect and reward businessmen, which had to be said that there was a "commercial war" among them. The rise of the so-called "commercial power" is promoted by the ideological trend of "commercial war".

In fact, a wave of social movements in modern times all took "saving the country" as the banner. Businessmen who "talk about business" can only keep pace with the times, raise the banner of "patriotism" and stand with patriotic people. Otherwise, it is very likely that the masses will vent their resentment and passion in sports. There are countless examples of anti-imperialism first and then anti-profiteers in the nationalist movement. Therefore, under the banner of "commercial war", it is both useful and forced by the times for businessmen. As far as businessmen are concerned, it is understandable to take commercial interests as the purpose. However, in modern China, with the boiling of people's feelings, the proposal of social evolution theory and the noise of economic nationalism, the situation has not allowed businessmen to cross the border to pursue profits.

But this strategy did not fundamentally solve the concerns of businessmen. There are few moral resources to support the pursuit of self-interest. Businessmen can only observe the trends in the market with vigilant eyes while doing business.

Ruan believes that the gentry and businessmen cooperate with the nationalist trend of thought with the concept of "commercial war" and interpret their self-image as a patriotic role. But in fact, this role is difficult to be accepted by Chinese people. The reason is that most gentry businessmen only care about their own interests and ignore the public interests of the country, and even illegal acts emerge one after another. It not only destroyed its advertised patriotic role, but also was reviled by the society. [50] The author believes that the "patriotic" image of businessmen is not accepted by society. In fact, the more important reason is that the social psychology of "doing nothing" has not changed much. It is very natural for businessmen to pay attention to their own interests in their operations. As long as it is within the scope of law, such behavior should not be condemned. Businessmen under the banner of "commercial war" in the economic nationalist movement will indeed encounter similar embarrassing problems such as "public interests and private interests" and "legality and illegality".

More importantly, the government advocates "commercial war" with the ultimate goal of "resisting foreign forces." Because businessmen base their profit-seeking rationality on the superficial sand of "commercial war", they blindly take "commercial war" as a signboard, instead of believing in "Protestant ethics" like Calvinists in Europe, claiming that making money is the "bounden duty" of human beings and demanding legal protection. Therefore, when intellectuals or revolutionaries think that the road they put forward can save the country better than "commercial war", then businessmen have to accept the new slogan. When radical people want to infringe on their private property rights, businessmen can't really move a decent theoretical weapon to fight it. And if the government implements the policy of oppression and deprivation in the name of "people" and "country", businessmen will have to bear it. This is the tragic fate brought by the slogan of "commercial war" to businessmen. They don't seek legal protection of private property rights, but want to earn a lot of money by relying on the "patriotic" enthusiasm of the people. Maybe they can make some temporary profits, but in the end they may destroy everything they have. For businessmen, the slogan of "commercial war" is just such a double-edged sword.