There is an urgent need for review materials for an introduction to linguistics ~ ~ ~

Notes on Introduction to Linguistics of Beijing Normal University

Overall grasp:

Proportion:

Introduction 25%

Introduction: the nature and task, methods and classification, review and summary, function and significance of linguistics.

Introduction: Introduce the essence and development of language from a macro perspective. The essence of language is mainly expounded from three aspects: the difference and connection between language and speech, the social function of language and the general internal structure of language. The development of language is mainly to grasp the reasons, characteristics, process and results of development. Question type: explain the text, fill in the blanks, choose, answer or discuss with examples.

Sound 25%-30%

After mastering the physiological attributes (the three parts of the pronunciation organs) and physical attributes (the four elements of pronunciation), we should fully grasp the various structural units of the phonetic material shell, namely phonemes, phonemes, syllables and speech flow. Phoneme embodies the social attribute of pronunciation, which is the focus of the whole chapter. The principle of division and combination of phonemes is a necessary question every time. English and Chinese vowel and consonant phonemes. Remember the description methods of vowels and consonants in Chinese as much as possible. Question types: explanation, choice, filling in the blanks, and comprehensive application.

Semantic 25%

The definition of semantics, the difference between linguistic meaning and verbal meaning. Linguistic meaning focuses on lexical meaning (meaning), such as the nature and characteristics of meaning, especially the sememe analysis of meaning and the aggregation category of meaning-semantic field. Sememe analysis focuses on the analysis of kinship words and synonyms. Speech meaning mainly studies the relationship between semantics and context, such as the influence of context on semantics and the way semantics changes in context. Causes, approaches and results of semantic changes.

Vocabulary 15%-20%

Vocabulary focuses on the definitions and differences between morphemes (morphemes) and words and phrases, the classification of morphemes (roots, affixes and suffixes), word formation and word structure types (phonetic word formation, semantic word formation and grammatical word formation, root combination, addition and subtraction). Vocabulary and the classification of fixed phrases.

Grammar 20%

Examples of foreign languages and Chinese should be combined. Attention should be paid to the classification criteria for the classification of words. The internal meaning of syntax has explicit meaning and implicit meaning. Explicit meaning mainly refers to the relationship between statement, modification, domination, parallelism and complement, and the structure of subject-predicate, deviation, verb-object, combination and complement. The method of composition analysis and hierarchy analysis, especially the analysis of ambiguous sentences. Tree diagram and sentence conversion rules combined with analytic hierarchy process.

Text 5%

The Nature, Function, Origin, Development, Classification, Reform and Creation of Chinese Characters

Cross-language is untested.

I. Introduction

Noun:

Linguistics, Introduction to Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Contrastive Linguistics, Historical Comparative Linguistics, Descriptive Linguistics, Diachronic Linguistics, Temporal Linguistics, Individual Linguistics, Combinatorial Relations, Aggregative Relations, General Linguistics, Micro Linguistics, Macrolinguistics, Theoretical Linguistics, Literature, Language, Speech, Thinking, Symbol, Progression, Uneven, Language Differentiation, Language Integration, Language

Knowledge points:

1, Indian, Greek, Roman and China are considered as the three major sources of China literature.

2. Indian scholar Bargeny Ni wrote an outstanding Sanskrit grammar book when collating and annotating the Vedas. The ancient Greek scholar Alistair edited and arranged the Roman epic, and his student Dionysius? Trax wrote the first book called "the greatest authority of grammar"-Greek Grammar.

3. William of England? Jones put forward "Indo-European Hypothesis" and became a pioneer of historical comparative linguistics.

4. German scholar schlegel first put forward "Comparative Grammar". He is a pioneer of historical comparative linguistics.

5. Lasker of Denmark, Bob of Germany, Green of Russia and Ostov laid the foundation of historical comparative linguistics.

6. Saussure is called "the father of modern linguistics". The Course of General Linguistics edited by his students embodies his linguistic thoughts, such as strictly distinguishing between language and speech, time and duration, internal linguistics and external linguistics, combinatorial relationship and aggregation relationship. This book has played an epoch-making role in the history of linguistic development.

7. Structuralist language school is divided into three schools: A. Prague School, known as Functionalism School. B, Copenhagen school, known as the "symbolic school". C, the American school, is called the descriptive school.

8. The founder of the transformation generation method is Chomsky. The study of human language production ability, that is, how to generate infinite sentences with limited components and rules. The goal is to propose a grammar system that can produce all sentences, mainly including generation and transformation. Generation rules include a set of phrase structure rules and vocabulary insertion rules. The former is represented by a set of symbols, such as S→NP+VP, NP→D+N, VP→V+NP(S stands for sentence, NP stands for noun phrase, VP stands for verb phrase, D stands for determiner, N stands for noun and V stands for verb). Lexical rules are the guarantee to generate qualified sentences, that is, to constrain the components in sentences. As in the above example, the noun before "POST" must be a biological noun (generally referring to people). Violation of this restriction will lead to unqualified sentences. "Transformation" mainly refers to the transformation of sentence patterns and structures. This theory is suitable for the application of computers, which overcomes the shortcomings of structural linguistics that only emphasizes the surface structure and ignores the deep structure, but it also exposes the shortcomings of being divorced from social context and complicated procedures.

9. Intersection and marginality are the biggest features of linguistics in the new era.

10, language is a communication tool, observed from the origin and extinction of language. The origin of language includes myths, modal voices, exclamations, contract words and gestures. The exchange of collective labor is the decisive factor in language production. The only criterion to decide whether a language is developing or dying is whether it has communicative value. There are two kinds of language extinction: one is real extinction; One is false extinction.

1 1 Language is the most important communication tool. Besides language, there are many tools that people use to communicate. It can be roughly divided into three categories: the first category is words; The second category is semaphore, light language and telegraph code? ; The third category is body language. Text is one of the most important auxiliary communication tools based on language. Semantics and the like are auxiliary communication tools based on special fields of language and characters, and cannot be compared with language.

12. Language is a unique communication tool for human beings. Human language is social, unit-specific, arbitrary, productive and pedagogical. Animals can only imitate, have primary thinking ability and understand human nature, but they still can't learn human language. Experiments also show that animals cannot master human language.

13. Language is a symbol combining sound and meaning.

14, to know the characteristics of language symbols, it is best to start with the most basic and independent unit of language-words. Every word in human language is the product of the combination of sound and meaning. We can observe words from two aspects: (1) relatively static analysis of words themselves; (2) Make a relatively dynamic analysis of words and word combinations.

15. There are some onomatopoeia and exclamations in the language, which are not absolutely arbitrary. First, the number of these words is very small. Second, these words can have different sound representations in different languages, which are arbitrary in the final analysis.

16, the arbitrariness and mandatory invariance of language symbols are two aspects of a contradiction.

17, language is a symbol system, and language is a symbol system composed of small systems with different structural units. The systematicness of language symbols is also manifested in the hierarchy and combination and aggregation of language symbols.

18. The combination relationship is a realistic, orderly and countable horizontal relationship; Aggregation relationship is a kind of related, disordered and difficult to count accurately.

19, the combination and aggregation of languages can be regarded as a class, and all structural units of a language system can find their own position in this class. The combination and aggregation of languages limit the arbitrariness of language symbols. These two relations are also of great guiding significance to our speech activities.

20, the hierarchy of language symbols

Two floors, three floors. The bottom layer is a group of phoneme aggregation classes, and the upper layer is a sentence with three levels composed of morphemes and morphemes.

2 1. Speech propagation process: five stages: encoding, sending, transmitting, receiving and decoding.

22. The British philosopher Austin founded the speech act theory. He divided declarative sentences, the most commonly used sentences in people's daily language, into declarative sentences and performative sentences. Expressions refer to "what was said" with the purpose of stating; The expressive sentence refers to "the words to do something" with the purpose of implementing the behavior. It is further divided into three speech acts: A. Speech acts B. Agency acts C. Effective acts.

23. Conversational principles of speech: quality standard, quantity standard, relationship standard and mode standard (Grice, American language philosopher)

24. Leach, a famous British scholar, proposed the following politeness principles to supplement the conversational principles: propriety, generosity, praise, modesty, approval and sympathy.

25. The three elements of verbal communication: one's own factors, the other's factors and the contextual factors of both sides.

26. Language is a steadily developing system. Human society is the objective condition for the stability and development of language. The reason why a language can present a stable state is mainly determined by the stability of its basic vocabulary and grammatical structure. When the society needs the stability of language system, the compulsory invariance of language symbols becomes the main aspect of contradiction, which makes the language stable. The continuous development of language is caused by the contradiction between the structural elements of language. The phonetic system of Chinese has gone through the process of simplification-complexity-simplification. The arbitrariness of language symbols plays an important role in the development of language.

27. The law of language development can be divided into two categories: one is the law of individual language development, and the other is the law of universal language development.

28. Phonetic changes are slow, and the slowest is grammar.

29. Dialects and kinship languages are the result of language differentiation.

30. Determine the criteria for distinguishing a certain language dialect: consider the criteria of language structure, social, historical and cultural standards, whether there is a written form to standardize the language, whether there is national psychology, and whether there is a direction of convergence.

3 1. The Sino-Tibetan language family is generally considered to include Chinese, Dong-Tai, Miao-Yao and Tibeto-Burman languages.

32.* * * Homologous, national communication language and international communication language are the results of integration of language.

Esperanto is not a natural language for international communication.

Short answer:

1, the relationship between language and speech (difference and connection)?

2, distinguish the meaning of language and speech?

Use:

Conversational principle of speech

Second, the sound.

Noun:

Phonetics, phonemes, international phonetic symbols, tongue vowels, tip vowels, nasal vowels, phonemes, phoneme variants, conditional variants, free variants, typical variants, general variants, non-tonal phonemes, tone sandhi, time-varying tones, phoneme system, syllables, language flow, assimilation, alienation, weakening, stress, sentence overlapping and phoneme differentiation.

Knowledge points:

1, the physiological characteristics of speech are divided into three parts:

Dynamic organs (lungs and trachea), vocal organs (vocal cords in the larynx, in addition to thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, spoon cartilage, epiglottis cartilage and other laryngeal cartilage and muscles connecting them), vocal regulating organs (oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharyngeal cavity, of which oral cavity is the most important).

2. Like other sounds, pronunciation has four elements: pitch, sound intensity, sound length and sound quality. Sound intensity is very important.

3. Vowels belong to musical sounds, voiced consonants belong to noise and voiced consonants belong to mixed sounds.

4. From the perspective of experimental phonetics, the sound quality of vowels in musical sounds is determined by the * * * peak of vowels. Voiced consonants have musical components.

5. From the perspective of pronunciation, the reasons for the difference in sound quality are a. Different pronunciation styles b. Different pronunciation methods c. Different cavity shapes.

6. Phones can be divided into two categories: vowel phonemes and consonant phonemes. The main differences are as follows: (1) Whether the vocal organs above the glottis are accessible; Look at the strength of the airflow; See if all parts of the vocal organs are balanced or partially nervous; See if the vocal cords vibrate.

7. International phonetic symbols can be divided into broad phonetic symbols and narrow phonetic symbols.

8. Each vowel has its own characteristics, and the characteristics of the cause are determined by the shape of the organ (mainly the shape of the mouth). According to the position of the tongue in the oral cavity, vowels can be divided into lingual vowels and tongue tip vowels.

9. The expression of twelve vowels in Chinese Pinyin: P55.

First, fly, leaves, come down, I, quiet, busy, fish, goose, big, big, press.

10, phoneme and phoneme are two completely different concepts: first, the study of phoneme can transcend specific languages and dialects and focus on the natural attributes of pronunciation; The study of phonemes must be carried out in a specific language or dialect, not only from the natural attributes of pronunciation, but also from the social attributes of pronunciation. Phoneme is like the raw material that human beings have to make the appearance of sound. People in different languages or dialects take different phonemes from them and form their own language or dialect phoneme system. Second, phonemes can only be segmented from the perspective of sound quality, but phonemes can be segmented and merged from any of the four elements of speech. Thirdly, phonemes can be analyzed by a pronunciation, and phonemes often involve a pronunciation. Fourthly, phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit divided from the perspective of sound quality, and phoneme should be analyzed in detail.

1 1. Phonemes are divided into two types: quality phonemes and non-quality phonemes.

12, the basic principles of phoneme division and merger

The principle of opposition (substitution and non-opposition are the first principles of phoneme combination), the principle of complementarity and the principle of similarity.

The positions of vowels 13 and P65 are very important.

14, the distinctive features of phonemes, a phoneme is actually a collection of distinctive features. The core of these distinguishing features is binary opposition, with "+"on the left and "-"on the right of the diagonal.

15, Jakobson summed up the distinctive features of phonemes from the world languages, and Chomsky developed the distinctive features to more than 30 pairs.

16, the opposition between phonemes is actually the opposition of one or several pairs of phonetic features.

17, and the peak of syllable tension is called sound peak; The lowest point of syllable tension is the foot valley at the junction of syllables.

18, there are four ways to form syllables: initial+initial, initial+initial, initial+initial+radio.

19, the common sound change images in language flow are assimilation, alienation, weakening, falling off, stress and so on.

20. Intonation What matters is the tone of the sentence.

2 1. Examples of the historical evolution of Chinese phonetics are voiced and unvoiced, the appearance of new phonemes and the disappearance of old phonemes.

22. "Equal division of Yin and Yang" is differentiation, and "turbid upward returning" and "three tones of entering tone" are merger.

23. The historical evolution of pronunciation is regular, but the language law is conditional. The first is the voice condition. In other words, the evolution of speech should be limited by the quality and non-quality of the evolved sound itself or other adjacent sounds. Second, it is the time condition. That is, the law of phonetic evolution only works in a certain historical period. Third, it is geographical conditions. In other words, the evolution of pronunciation only occurs in a certain area.

Application: P83 Exercise 5

Third, semantics.

Semantics, sememe, sememe, semantic field, context, linguistic meaning, verbal meaning and presupposition.

Knowledge points:

1, semantic triangle: meaning, pronunciation and objective things are in a tripartite relationship, which restricts and interacts with each other.

2. The unity of opposites between linguistic meaning and verbal meaning.

3. Linguistic meaning can be divided into lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

4. The types of lexical meaning can be divided into four categories: conceptual meaning, emotional meaning, style meaning and collocation meaning.

5. The meaning of words has the following characteristics: subjectivity, generality (generality is the most important feature of words), nationality and fuzziness.

6. The national characteristics of word meaning are first reflected in the relationship between sound and meaning, and also in the differences of emotional meanings of words.

7. Grammatical meaning: category meaning, relational meaning and functional meaning.

8. The general principle of sememe analysis is binary opposition.

9. The first step of the sememe analysis program is to determine the scope of comparison, and the second step is through comparison.

10. Types of semantic fields: synonymous semantic field, antonym semantic field, polysemy semantic field and associative semantic field.

1 1. Context has the following four functions: to make the meaning of language clearer and eliminate ambiguity and ambiguity; Give words a temporary and specific meaning; Affect the emotional color of words; Fill in and enrich the meaning of words.

Semantic combination in context.

The combination of semantics is not only restricted by the linear law of language, but also by the selective law of semantic collocation.

13. Semantic change patterns in context: concrete meaning, vague meaning, antonym and escape.

14. Speech meaning can be divided into four types: contextual meaning, implication, * * present meaning and thematic meaning.

15, the reason of semantic evolution: the development and change of social life; The improvement of people's cognitive ability; Contradictions within language units.

16, the way of semantic evolution: the core meaning is called basic meaning, and the extended meaning is called extended meaning. There are two main ways to extend this meaning: metaphor and metonymy.

17, the result of semantic evolution: expansion, contraction and transfer of semantically referred concepts.

18, there are two main types of semantic transfer: transfer through metaphor or metonymy; The transmission of emotional meaning in language units.

Fourth, vocabulary.

Vocabulary, word, fixed phrases, morpheme, root, affix, suffix, basic vocabulary.

Knowledge points:

1, there are two lexical units, one is a word and the other is a fixed phrase.

2. The boundary between words and non-words: one is the boundary between words and morphemes, and the other is the boundary between words and phrases. Morpheme is a combination of sound and meaning that cannot be used independently in language, while word is the smallest unit that can be used independently. The boundary between words and phrases lies in whether it is the "smallest unit". Words can be used independently. Phrases can also be used independently, but not the smallest independent unit.

3. Only the unit that can be extended successfully is a phrase, otherwise it is a word. These three conditions are: first, the meaning of the expanded language unit is basically unchanged; Second, the combination relationship remains unchanged after expansion; Third, after an expansion, it can continue to expand.

4. Classification of morphemes. According to the function of morphemes in word formation, morphemes can be divided into three types: root, affix and suffix.

The root is the core part of a word, which determines its main lexical meaning. Affixes refer to morphemes attached to the roots and play an additional role in the formation of word meanings. Suffix, the structure of a word can be divided into two parts: stem and suffix. A stem consists of a root or a root plus a suffix, and a suffix is a morpheme attached to the root or suffix that only expresses grammatical meaning.

5. The structural types of words. According to the composition of stems, words can be divided into simple words, compound words and derivatives.

6. Learn oral vocabulary and written vocabulary.

7. The generation of new words is mainly through coinage, new use of old words and loan words.

Verb (abbreviation for verb) grammar

noun

Grammar, grammar, phrases, sentences, grammatical categories, word forms and parts of speech.

Learning point

1. Grammatical features: abstraction, recursion, stability, nationality and locality.

2. Word forms: sex, number, case, aspect, tense, state, form, person and grade.

3. Grammatical means, also known as grammatical methods, generally include internal tortuous method, addition method, overlapping method, different roots method, stress method, word order, function words, intonation, articles, prepositions and postpositions, auxiliary verbs, etc. Except word order and intonation, most of them can be classified as morphology.

4. Morphology generally refers to the grammatical form of lexical scope. Morphology in a narrow sense refers to configuration method, also called configuration morphology, that is, the morphological changes of semantic words express different grammatical meanings. Lexicology in a broad sense not only refers to the formation method (formation form), but also refers to word formation in a narrow sense, which is also called word formation form, that is, the method of creating new words according to certain rules on the basis of word roots. Chinese has no or few narrow forms.

3. The relational meaning of syntactic structure.

Clear meaning: various grammatical relations expressed only in a certain grammatical form. Syntactic relations can usually be divided into declarative relations, modifying relations, dominating relations, juxtaposition relations and supplementary relations. Five structural modes are formed respectively: subject-predicate structure, radical structure, verb-object structure, joint structure and post-complement structure.

Implicit meaning: refers to various grammatical relationships hidden behind explicit meaning, which are usually manifested as the relationship between agent and action, action and patient.

Explicit meaning and implicit meaning are the relationship of unity of opposites.

4. External forms of syntactic structure: explicit form and implicit form.

5. Analysis methods of syntactic structure: sentence component analysis, composition analysis and transformation analysis (emphasis).

6. Analysis of ambiguous sentences by conversion method can be divided into the following steps:

A. Find two ambiguous sentences (which can be understood as finding two deep structures) and express them in the most concise language (which can have many forms).

B. point out the syntactic relationship and syntactic structure of explicit meaning respectively.

C. Take * as the rule (shift, insert and delete), and gradually convert the two sentence patterns into the original sentence. (It can be understood as the transformation from deep structure to surface structure).

D. point out the relationship between giving and receiving, that is, the implied meaning.

Examples of 10 and P 159- 160

1 1, text adhesion

VI. Text

Noun:

Characters, phonograms, borrowed source characters

Knowledge points:

1, three elements of writing: form, sound and meaning.

2. The invention of writing broke the time and space limitation of language. Characters are the most important symbol system invented by human beings. Language plays a decisive role in writing.

3. Ideographic characters express the meaning of words or morphemes through the combination of symbols.

4. In addition to Chinese characters, ancient ideographs include ancient Egyptian characters, Mesopotamian cuneiform characters, ancient Crete (MINO) characters and ancient Mayan characters in Central America.

5. Words that mark language sounds are called phonetic symbols. Pictophonetic characters can be divided into phonological characters and syllabic characters. English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian and Arabic are all phonological characters.

6. Greek alphabet, Latin alphabet, Slavic alphabet and Arabic alphabet are widely used in today's world.

Today, the Slavic alphabet is used in Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Yugoslavia and Mongolia.

8. North Korea uses proverbs and Japan uses pseudonyms.

9. There are three situations in the text reform: one is the change or adjustment of the text within the text system; One is the change of the whole writing system; The other is the reform of the writing system, which refers to the transformation from ideographic writing to phonography.

Review points of introduction to linguistics

introduce

Key noun concepts: linguistics, general linguistics, specialized linguistics, * * * temporal linguistics, diachronic linguistics.

I. Linguistics, Linguistic Objects and Tasks

Second, the position of linguistics in the scientific system

Third, the basic categories of linguistics

According to different research objects, linguistics can be divided into temporal linguistics and diachronic linguistics, specialized linguistics and general linguistics.

Four. Language school

It is enough to know the viewpoints and representatives of various linguistic schools. Note that Prague School, Copenhagen School and American Structuralist Linguistics School (also known as American Descriptive Linguistics) all belong to the Structuralist School and are three branches of this school. There is no test requirement for the specific content of language schools.

Chapter I Social Functions of Speech

This chapter must clarify two main points: the social function of language, that is, communication tool and thinking tool; Language is a social phenomenon.

Main noun concepts: language, society and social phenomena.

Section 1 Language is the most important communication tool for human beings.

1. Language is a communication tool of human society.

1. Communicative function of language: Language is an important symbol that distinguishes human beings from other animals. Language is a bridge and link between social members, a tool for social members to communicate and exchange ideas, and a tool for coordinating social members' actions.

2. Language is a social phenomenon: language is a social phenomenon closely related to human society. Without human society, there would be no language, and there would be no language in other societies. The so-called social phenomena refer to those phenomena closely related to the emergence, existence and development of human isomorphism. Different nationalities have different languages, and different regions have different languages. At the same time, social changes have a great influence on language. Without human society, there would be no language. In a word, language is a social phenomenon, which is closely related to society, and its emergence and development are influenced by society.

Language is not a natural phenomenon. On the one hand, language is closely related to society, and the development and change of society directly affects the development and change of language, that is to say, the development and change of language is subject to society. On the other hand, language is not a natural phenomenon, but a social custom, and there is no necessary essential connection. If language is a natural phenomenon, then all languages in the world should be the same, and there is no difference. In fact, there are all kinds of languages in the world, and many languages have dialects, which shows that language is by no means a natural phenomenon.

3. Language is a special social phenomenon: language is not only a social phenomenon, but also a special social phenomenon. The particularity of language as a social phenomenon mainly lies in that social phenomena can be divided into two categories: economic base and superstructure. Any social phenomenon belongs to either the economic base or the superstructure, while language belongs to neither the economic base nor the superstructure, and the changes of the two will not affect language in essence. Therefore, in essence, language is a communication tool for human beings. It serves the whole society equally, regardless of class or stratum. It has no class and has the characteristics of the whole people.

4. Language has no class: we can think from the following aspects. First, it depends on whether the language tool serves a specific class or the public. Secondly, combined with the structure of the language itself, observe in what ways the language embodies the class nature. Thirdly, look at the social environment in which language is produced. Language comes from a classless society, and society has no class. As a product of society, language has no class.

Second, language is the most important communication tool for human beings.

Humans can use words, semaphores, traffic lights, telegraph codes, mathematical symbols, body posture, expressions and so on. To convey information, communicate and exchange ideas, can make up for some shortcomings of language. However, the use of these communication tools is limited, and some of them are only used in a specific range. The most important thing is that these communication tools are inseparable from language, based on language and auxiliary.

Comprehensive mastery: the relationship between language and speech

Section 2 Language is a tool of thinking

First, the relationship between language and thinking

Language is not only a tool for human communication, but also a tool for human thinking and a treasure house of cognitive achievements. The process of thinking is inseparable from language, which requires a series of activities such as comparison, analysis and synthesis. It needs to be used to form ideas, stored in the mind, expressed and conveyed to the listener, and at the same time let the listener generate ideas. Moreover, concepts, the result of human thinking, can be fixed in words. In short, the process of thinking activities can not be separated from language, and thinking can not be separated from language, and can only be carried out with the help of language materials. Language is also inseparable from thinking. They are interdependent and develop together.

Second, thinking ability is the same for all mankind, and language is different for all ethnic groups.

Thinking ability has no nationality, and all mankind has it, but different nationalities have different ways of thinking, which can be seen from the language differences of different nationalities. There are few words that are completely equivalent in meaning, function and color between different languages.

……

There is also a review note courseware for an introduction to linguistics on the following website, so you can go and have a look.

I hope my answer is useful to you.