8 key grammar points for junior high school English

. Nouns

Nouns can be divided into proper nouns (Proper Nouns) and common nouns (Common Nouns). Proper nouns are a certain person(s), place, institution, etc. Proper names such as Beijing, China, etc. A common noun is a noun for a type of person or thing or an abstract concept, such as: book, sadness, etc. Common nouns can be divided into the following four categories:

1) Individual nouns (Individual Nouns): Indicate individuals of a certain type of people or things, such as: gun.

2) Collective Nouns: Indicates a collection of several individuals, such as family.

3) Material Nouns: Indicates physical objects that cannot be divided into individuals, such as: air.

4) Abstract Nouns: express abstract concepts such as action, state, quality, emotion, etc., such as: work.

Individual nouns and collective nouns can be counted by number and are called countable nouns. Material nouns and abstract nouns generally cannot be counted by number and are called uncountable nouns.

To sum up, the classification of nouns can be represented by the following figure:

_________________________________________

| |proper nouns| |

|nouns| | individual nouns| |

p>

| | | | count nouns|

| | | collective nouns| |

| | common nouns| | |

| words | | Material nouns| |

| | | | Uncountable nouns|

| | | Abstract nouns| p>

____________________________________________________________

Situation formation method pronunciation examples

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In general situations, add -s 1. After unvoiced consonants, pronounce /s/; map -maps

2. Bag-bags after voiced consonants and vowels

Pronounced /z/; car-cars

_____________________________________________________

Add -es to words ending in s, sh, ch,

x, etc. to read /iz/ bus-buses

watch-watches

_____________________________________________________

Words ending with ce, se, ze,

(d)ge, etc.

add -s to read /iz/ license-licenses

__________________________________________________

Use the consonant letter + y to change y to i

Add es to the word ending in /z/ baby---babies

____________________________________________________________

1.2 Changes in the rules for the pluralization of other nouns

1) When a proper noun ending with y, or a noun ending with a vowel + y becomes plural, add s directly to make it plural:

For example: two Marys the Henrys

monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays

Compare: Floor: storey ---storeys story---stories < /p>

2) When nouns end with o, become plural:

a. Add s, such as: photo---photos piano---pianos

radio ---radios zoo---zoos;

b. Add es, such as: potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes

c.

Either can be used, such as: zero---zeros / zeroes

3) When a noun ending in f or fe becomes plural:

a. Add s, such as: belief--- beliefs roof---roofs

safe---safes gulf---gulfs;

b. Remove f, fe and add ves, such as: half---halves

knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves

wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves;

c . can be used, such as: handkerchief:

handkerchiefs / handkerchieves

1.3 Irregular changes in plural nouns

1) child---children foot--- feet tooth---teeth

mouse---mice man---men woman---women

Note: The plural form of compound words formed with man and woman is also -men and -women.

For example: an Englishman, two Englishmen. But German is not a compound word, so the plural form is Germans; Bowman is a surname, and its plural form is the Bowmans.

2) The simple and complex forms are the same as:

deer, sheep, fish, Chinese, Japanese

li, jin, yuan, two li, three mu, four jin

However, in addition to RMB, jiao, and cents, U.S. dollars, pounds, francs, etc. all have plural forms. For example:

a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters

3) Collective nouns appear in singular form, but are actually plural.

For example: people, police, cattle, etc. are themselves plural. We cannot say a people, a police, a cattle, but we can say

a person, a policeman, a head of cattle, the Nouns such as English, the British, the French, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Swiss are used in the plural when expressing the collective name of the nation.

For example: The Chinese are industries and brave. The Chinese people are hardworking and brave.

4) Nouns ending in s are still singular, such as:

a. Maths, politics, physics and other subject nouns are uncountable nouns and are singular.

b. news is an uncountable noun.

c. the United States, the United Nations shall be regarded as singular.

The United Nations was organized in 1945. The United Nations was organized in 1945.

d. Book titles, drama titles, newspaper and magazine titles that appear in the plural form can also be regarded as singular.

"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.

<> is a very interesting story-book.

5) Express something composed of two parts, such as: glasses (glasses) trousers, clothes

If you want to express a specific number, you need to use the quantifier pair (pair, double); suit( a pair of glasses; two pairs of trousers

6) There are also some nouns, the plural form of which can sometimes express special meanings, such as: goods, waters, fishes (various) fish

1.4 Representation of uncountable nouns

1) Material nouns

a. When material nouns are converted into individual nouns.

Compare: Cake is a kind of food. Cake is a kind of food. (uncountable)

These cakes are sweet. These cakes are delicious. (Countable)

b. When a substance noun indicates the type of substance, the noun is countable.

This factory produces steel. (uncountable)

We need various steels. (countable)

c. When the substance noun expresses the number of parts, it can number.

Our country is famous for tea.

Our country is famous for tea.

Two teas, please.

Please bring two cups of tea.

2) Abstract nouns can sometimes be counted.

four freedoms

the four modernizations

Material nouns and abstract nouns can use a certain number of unit words.

For example:

a glass of water

a piece of advice

1.5 Plural of attributive nouns

Nouns are generally used in the singular as attributives, but there are the following exceptions.

1) Use plural as attributive.

Such as: sports meeting sports meeting

students reading-room student reading room

talks table negotiation table

the foreign languages ??department foreign languages ??department

2) When man, woman, gentleman, etc. are used as attributives, their singular and plural forms depend on the singular and plural forms of the nouns they modify.

For example: men workers women teachers

gentlemen officials

3) For some nouns ending in s, when used as attributives, s is retained.

Such as: goods train (truck)

arms produce weapons production

customs papers customs documents

clothes brush clothes brush

4) When a numeral + a noun is used as an attributive, the noun generally remains in the singular form.

For example: two-dozen eggs two dozen/ (twenty-four eggs)

a ten-mile walk ten miles away

two-hundred trees two hundred tree

a five-year plan. A five-year plan

Individual plurals are used as attributives, such as: a seven-years child

1.6 Different Singular and plural of people in a country

General name (use plural for predicate) one person two people

中国人the Chinese a Chinese two Chinese

Swiss the Swiss a Swiss two Swiss

Australians the an two

Australians Australian Australians

Russians the Russians a Russian two Russians

Italians the Italians an Italian two Italians

The Greek a Greek two Greeks

The French the French a Frenchman two

Frenchmen

the Japanese a Japanese two Japanese

Americans the Americans an American two Americans

Indians the Indians an Indian two Indians

Canadians the Canadians a Canadian two Canadians

Germans the Germans a Germans two Germans

British the English an Englishman two

Englishmen

Swedish the Swedish a Swede two Swedes

1.7 Case of nouns

In English, some nouns can be added with "'s" to express all relationships, with this kind of ending

The noun form is called the possessive case of the noun,

For example: a teacher's book. The rules for possessive nouns are as follows:

1) Add "'s" to the end of singular nouns, and add "'s" to plural nouns without s at the end,

For example, the boy's bag Boy's school bag, men's room.

2) If the noun already has a plural ending -s, just add "'", such as: the workers' struggle.

3) Any noun that cannot be added with "'s" can use the structure of "noun + of + noun" to express all relationships,

For example: the title of the song The name of the song.

4) When expressing the name of a shop or church or someone's home, the possessive noun often does not appear after the noun it modifies,

For example: the barber's barber shop .

5) If two nouns are juxtaposed and have 's respectively, it means "there are respectively"; if there is only one 's, it means '***have'.

For example: John's and Mary's room (two rooms) John and Mary's room (one room)

6) For compound nouns or phrases, 's is added to the end of the last word.

For example: a month or two's absence

2. Articles and numerals

2.1 Usage of indefinite articles

Articles It is a function word. It cannot be used alone and has no meaning. It is used in front of a noun to help indicate the meaning of the noun.

There are three types of articles in English, one is the Definite Article (the Definite Article), the other is the Indefinite Article (the Indefinite Article),

There is also another It is Zero Article.

The indefinite article a (an) has the same origin as the numeral one, meaning "one". a is used before a consonant phoneme and is generally pronounced as [e],

and an is used before a vowel phoneme and is generally pronounced as [en].

1) It means "a", meaning one; it refers to someone or something, meaning a certain.

A Mr. Ling is waiting for you.

2) Represents a type of person or thing.

A knife is a tool for cutting with.

Mr. Smith is an engineer.

3) Phrases or idioms.

a little / a few / a lot / a type of / a pile / a great many / many a

/ as a rule / in a hurry / in a minute / in a word / in a short while /

after a while / have a cold / have a try / keep an eye on / all of a sudden

2.2 Usage of definite article< /p>

The definite article the has the same origin as the demonstrative pronouns this and that. It has the meaning of "that (this)", but is weaker. It can be used with a noun to express one or some specific people. or something.

1) Specifically refers to people or things that both parties understand:

Take the medicine. Take the medicine.

2) The person or thing mentioned above:

He bought a house. I've been to the house.

He bought a house. house. I've been to that house.

3) Refers to two unique things in the world:

the sun, the sky, the moon, the earth

4) Singular nouns used together to express one kind of things, such as: the dollar;

the fox; or used with adjectives or participles to express a kind of people: the rich; the living.

5) Used in the superlative form of ordinal numbers and adjectives, and in front of adjectives only, very, same, etc.:

Where do you live? I live on the second floor. You live in where? I live on the second floor.

That's the very thing I've been looking for.

6) Used with plural nouns to refer to the entire group:

They are the teachers of this school. Refers to all teachers)

They are teachers of this school . (referring to some teachers)

7) Indicates everything, equivalent to a possessive pronoun, used before nouns indicating body parts:

She caught me by the arm.. She caught me Caught my arm.

8) Used before some proper nouns such as country names, institutions, groups, classes, etc. that are composed of common nouns:

the People's Republic of China and the People's Republic of China 国

the United States

9) Used before nouns indicating musical instruments: She plays the piano. She can play the piano.

10) Used before the plural noun of the surname to indicate a family:

the Greens Green family (or Mr. and Mrs. Green)

11) Used idiomatically In the language:

in the day, in the morning (afternoon, evening), the day after tomorrow

the day before yesterday, the next morning,

in the sky (water, field, country)

in the dark, in the rain, in the distance,

in the middle (of), in the end,

on the whole, by the way, go to the theater

2.3 Usage of zero article

1) The definite article is usually not used before the name of a country or a person: England, Mary;

2) A plural noun that refers to a category of people or things without the definite article;

They are teachers. They are teachers.

3) When abstract nouns express general concepts, they usually do not add an article;

Failure is the mother of success. Failure is the mother of success.

4) When material nouns express general concepts, they usually do not add an article. When they express a specific meaning, they need to add a definite article;

Man cannot live without water. Man cannot live without water. Just can't survive.

5) Do not add an article before nouns indicating time such as seasons, months, festivals, holidays, dates, weeks, etc.;

We go to school from Monday to Friday. Classes are held Monday to Friday.

6) Do not add an article before nouns that refer to official titles or positions;

The guards took the American to General Lee.

The soldiers took this Americans sent to General Lee.

7) No articles are added before the names of meals, ball games and recreational sports, such as: have breakfast, play chess

8) When two or more nouns When used together, the article is often omitted;

I can't write without pen or pencil. Without pen and pencil, I can't write.

9) When by is used with trains and other means of transportation to express a way, there is no article in the middle; by bus, by train;

10) Some individual nouns do not use articles ; Such as:

Individual nouns such as school, college, prison, market, hospital, bed, table, class, town, church, court, etc. are placed directly after the preposition to express the deep meaning of the noun;

p>

go to hospital go to the hospital to see a doctor

go to the hospital go to the hospital (not to see a doctor, but for other purposes)

11) Ordinal numbers without articles word;

a. Ordinal numbers are preceded by possessive pronouns

b. Ordinal numbers are used as adverbs He came first in the race.

c. In fixed phrases in (the) first, first of all, from first to last

2.4 Article and adjective + noun structure

1) Both adjectives have articles, indicating two Something different.

He raises a black and a white cat.

The black and the white cats are hers. The black and the white cats are his.

2) If the latter adjective has no article, it refers to one thing.

He raises a black and white cat. He raises a calico cat.

2.5 Article position

1) Indefinite article position

The indefinite article is often placed before a noun or a noun modifier. Note:

a. after the following adjectives: such, what, many, half,

I have never seen such an animal.

Many a man is fit for the job.

b. When the adjective before the noun is modified by the adverb as, so, too, how, however, enough, the indefinite article should be placed after the adjective:

It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.

So short a time.

Too long a distance.

c. quite, rather Singular nouns are used together with the article after them.

But when there are adjectives before rather or quite, the indefinite article can be placed before or after them. For example: quite a lot

d. In the concession adverbial clause introduced by as, though, when the slogan is a noun modified by an adjective, the indefinite article is placed after the adjective:

Brave a man though he is, he trembles at the sight of snakes.

When a noun is modified by a comparative adjective, the indefinite article is usually placed after the comparative adjective.

2) Definite article position

The definite article is usually placed before the noun or noun modifier, but after words such as all, both, double, half, twice, three times, etc. , before the noun.

All the students in the class went out. All the students in the class went out.

2.6 Numerals

Words that express the number or order are called numerals. Numerals are divided into cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals. Numerals that express quantity are called cardinal numerals; numerals that express order are called ordinal numerals.

1. Cardinal numerals

1) How to write and read cardinal numerals: 345 three hundred and forty-five;

2) Cardinal numerals are generally in singular form , but the plural is commonly used in the following situations:

a. Used with the phrase of to express an approximate number and cannot be used with a specific number, such as scores of people referring to many people;

b. In some cases In a phrase meaning "a row" or "a group";

For example: They arrived in twos and threes. They arrived in twos and threes.

c. Indicates "tens of years";

d. Indicates "era", use in + the + plural numeral;

e. In multiplication A representation of operations, such as: 3 x 5 = 15 Three fives is (are) fifteen.

2. Ordinal words

The abbreviation of ordinal words: first-- -1st second---2nd thirty-first---31st

3. Usage of numerals

1) Multiple expression

a. Subject + Predicate + multiple (or fraction) + as + adj. + as

I have three times as many as you. I have three times as many as you.

b. Subject + predicate + multiple (fraction) + the size (amount, length...) of...

The earth is 49 times the size of the moon. The earth is the moon. 49 times.

c. Subject + predicate + multiple (fraction) + adjective (adverb) comparative + than…

The grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year. < /p>

Grain production this year increased by 8% compared with last year.

d. You can also use by + multiple to indicate how many times it has increased

The production of grain has been increased by four times this year.

The production of grain has increased by four times this year. 4 times.

2) Fraction representation

Composition: Cardinal words represent the numerator, and ordinal words represent the denominator. When the numerator is greater than 1, use the singular number for the numerator and the plural number for the denominator:

1/3 one-third; 3/37 three and three-sevenths.

3. Pronoun

A pronoun is a part of speech that replaces a noun. Most pronouns function as nouns and adjectives.

Pronouns in English are divided into eight types according to their meanings, characteristics and functions in sentences: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, self-pronouns, mutual pronouns, interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns.

1. Personal pronouns mean "I", "you", "him", "she", "it",

"we", "you", "them" " word. Personal pronouns have changes in person, number and case, see the table below:

Number singular and plural

Case nominative object nominative object

First person I me we us

Second person you you you you

he him they them

Third person she her they them

it it they them

For example: He is my friend. He is my friend.

It's me.

2. Possessive pronouns are pronouns that express ownership relationships, and can also be called possessive pronouns. Possessive pronouns are divided into two types: descriptive possessive pronouns and nominal possessive pronouns. The changes in person and number are shown in the table below.

Singular and plural

Person first second third first second third

Person person person person person person person person person pronoun

Adjective my your his/her its our your/their

Possessive pronoun

Noun mine yours his/hers its ours yours/theirs

Possessive Pronouns

For example: I like his car.

I like his car.

Our school is here, and theirs is there.

Our school is here, and theirs is there.

3. Demonstrative pronouns represent pronouns indicating concepts such as "that", "this", "these", "those", etc. Demonstrative pronouns include this, that, these, those, etc.

Such as: That is a good idea. That is a good idea.

4. Pronouns expressing "myself", "yourself", "himself", "ourselves", "yourselves" and "themselves" are called self-pronouns, also known as "Reflexive pronouns".

For example: She was talking to herself. She was talking to herself.

5. Pronouns that express mutual relationships are called mutual pronouns. There are two groups of each other and one another, but in use, there is no difference between these two groups of words.

Such as: They love each other. They love each other.

6. Pronouns that do not specify the replacement of any specific noun are called indefinite pronouns. Common indefinite pronouns include a11, both, each, every, etc., as well as compound pronouns containing some-, any-, no-, etc., such as anyone, something, no one. Most of these indefinite pronouns can replace nouns and adjectives and serve as subjects, objects, predicates and attributives in sentences, but none and compound indefinite pronouns composed of some, any, no, etc. can only serve as subjects, objects or predicates; every and no can only be used as an attributive.

Such as:

--- Do you have a car? --Do you have a car?

---Yes, I have one. --Yes, I have one.

--- I don't know any of them. I don't know any of them.

7. Interrogative pronouns include who, whom, whose, what and which. Used in sentences to form special questions. Interrogative pronouns can be used as connecting pronouns to introduce noun clauses (subject clause, object clause and predicative clause)

For example: Tell me who he is. Tell me who he is.

8. Relative pronouns include who, whom, whose, that, which, as, etc., which can be used as relative words to introduce clauses. They can be used as subjects, predicates, objects, attributives, etc. in attributive clauses; on the other hand, they represent the noun or pronoun (commonly known as the antecedent) in the main clause that is modified by the attributive clause.

For example: He is the man whom you have been looking for. He is the man whom you have been looking for.

3.1 Usage of personal pronouns

1) The nominative case of personal pronouns serves as the subject or subject complement in the sentence, for example:

John waited a while but eventually he went home.

John waited for a while, and finally he went home.

John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.

John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.

Note: In a compound sentence, if the subjects of the main clause and the subordinate clause are the same, the pronominal subject should be used in the subordinate clause and the noun subject should be used in the main clause, for example:

When he arrived , John went straight to the bank.

John went straight to the bank as soon as he arrived.

2) The object of personal pronouns can be used as the object or the object of a preposition in a sentence, but it can also be used as a subject complement in spoken language. The first person can also be used as a subject in an omitted sentence, for example:

I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.

I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her. (Her serves as the object, them serves as the preposition object, and her serves as the subject complement)

a. -- Who broke the vase? --Who broke the vase?

b. -- Me. --I. (me serves as the subject complement = It's me.)

Explanation: In the above two examples, her and me serve as the subject complement respectively. The accusative case is often used in modern English. In formal style, it should be she and I.