How did the "Kangxi and Qianlong Dynasties" compare with Western countries at that time?

"The Manchus' entry into the Customs" is a historical retrogression

The history of mankind was originally a history of civilization defeating barbarism, democracy defeating autocracy, and progress replacing backwardness, and the Manchus' entry into the Customs is history. As for the development of reaction, let’s explore from seven aspects why “the Manchus’ entry into the Customs” is a historical retrogression.

1. Stifle the ideological enlightenment movement of the late Ming Dynasty and stifle the bud of capitalism. Strengthen the backward and rigid feudal autocratic system.

The emergence of capitalist sprouts in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River after the mid-Ming Dynasty marked a new stage in the development of industry and commerce within Confucian civilization. Capitalist sprouts were everywhere in the Jiangnan area. In the history of various countries, feudal states had the right to deprive industry and commerce of excessive profits. What the Ming Dynasty did was just to increase the tax rate under a clever name. There was no situation during the Han Dynasty when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty ordered merchants to give half of their property to support the government, which led to "a large-scale destruction of merchants and above." However, Ming Dynasty industrialists and merchants had become quite powerful social forces and could not tolerate such tax increases. Large-scale opposition to the mine supervisors occurred, and civil unrest among tax envoys continued to occur. Dozens of times on a large scale, hundreds of times on a general scale. ("Confucian Civilization") "Civil uprisings" are different from peasant uprisings. With this kind of struggle, ideas such as "equality", "freedom", "rejuvenating the country through industry" and "protection of trade" will spread, and bourgeois reforms and revolutions will be possible occur.

Some people say that there are no conditions for realizing capitalism in modern times similar to those in Western Europe. Then we have to ask, every country has its own path to modernization. China does not have the characteristics of the first capitalist countries such as the United Kingdom. Is it right? Can’t you explore a modern path yourself? For example, serfdom in Russia, Germany and Japan with strong feudal overtones. Another example is that modern China has directly moved towards socialism without going through the stage of advanced capitalism. The same Chinese once established the "Lan Fang Republic of China" in Nanyang, which existed for more than 100 years. The key is to emancipate the mind and communicate with the outside world. With communication, progress can be made. The United Kingdom had a parliament, and at that time, Chinese people formed associations one after another, and the atmosphere of people discussing politics was very strong. In particular, there is the advanced ideological and political organization "Fushe". In the Manchu Qing Dynasty, the country was closed to the outside world and association was strictly prohibited. The laws of the Qing Dynasty stipulated: "Any gathering of thirty people will be executed." Well, all non-governmental organizations have been banned.

The feudal autocratic system in the late Ming Dynasty was heading for disintegration and decline. In particular, Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties exposed the shortcomings of killing human nature and formed a fierce conflict with the vibrant citizen culture. People of insight have discovered the shortcomings of the feudal system in all aspects and are exploring a new path. New ideas and concepts are constantly emerging, and advanced and excellent Western culture and technology are being introduced, just like the eve of the Renaissance experienced by Western society. The late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty were the era of enlightenment in the intellectual world. The great thinkers of the Ming Dynasty, Li Zhi, Huang Zongxi, Gu Yanwu, and Wang Fuzhi, all saw the ills of feudal society, especially the harm of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties. In their works, they emphasized the importance of humanism and democracy. The light is shining. Huang Zongxi's "Yuanjun" criticized the autocratic monarchy and fired the first shot of democratic thought. In the late Ming Dynasty, the ideological circles began to reflect and criticize the entire feudal ideology from philosophy to ethics, from governance to scholarship. Opera novels are based on citizens' preferences and reflect the awakening of citizens' consciousness. This is a rebellion against the suppression of human nature by feudal ethics. Western Catholicism spread widely in the south, and was especially welcomed by advanced scholar-bureaucrats in the late Ming Dynasty. They tried to combine Western religions with Confucianism and sinicize foreign religions. Donglin Party members and Catholics were closely integrated and produced a large number of outstanding figures. For example, Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Qu Shichun, etc. are all Catholics. Xiang Wang Zheng, Sun Yuanhua, Li Tianjing, Zhang Tao, Qu Shixu, Chen Yujie, etc. formed a "Western Learning Group". Nanming Catholicism also spread in the palace, and the concubines generally believed in Catholicism, which would definitely affect the highest ruling group. The idea of ??equality for all promoted by Western religions is conducive to the spread of humanism and democratic ideas, and is also conducive to the introduction of science and technology, the exchange of Eastern and Western civilizations, and even the establishment of the capitalist system. However, the Manchu Qing's entry into the country ruined the intellectual community's last chance to combine Confucianism with Western Christian civilization to produce a new culture.

Some people say that the dynasty has become corrupt. From a whole point of view, it is true, but from a partial point of view, it is not necessarily true. The ruling class and feudal bureaucracy are corrupt, while the people are full of vitality. The prosperous Jiangnan region is where emerging forces sprout, grow, and grow. Just like during the Anti-Japanese War, the Kuomintang was decadent and it would be unfavorable to lead the whole people in the war of resistance. However, the Communist Party is a new revolutionary force and can lead the Chinese people in the war of resistance. It's just that the new forces in Nanming are not strong enough to independently lead the people in the war of resistance. In the 19th century, Japan only needed more than thirty years of westernization - the "Meiji Restoration" movement - to become a world power. What reason do we have to doubt that the ideological enlightenment and liberation of the late Ming Dynasty 200 years earlier could not bring about better things? situation. However, the Qing Dynasty's iron-blooded destruction caused a significant decline in social productivity. Material culture was destroyed on a large scale, and then a literary inquisition broke out, and Neo-Confucianism became untouchable. This decadent and declining feudal consciousness and system has been unprecedentedly strengthened, bringing China into darkness just like the European Middle Ages after the invasion of Western barbarians.

2. Productivity has declined significantly, and military equipment and science and technology have been relatively stagnant.

The Kangxi, Yongzong and Qianlong dynasties that some people are now strongly advocating are actually mostly restorative growth from the late Ming Dynasty. The revenue and expenditure of the Manchu Qing Dynasty were basically unchanged for a long time before Jiadao. The land was 30 million, the consumption was 4.6 million, and other money totaled 48 million taels of silver. According to Tian Fu in "Tongkao of Qing Dynasty Documents", In the 16th year of Shunzhi (1659), the total number of cultivated land in China was 5.49 million hectares, which increased to 6.83 million hectares in the 24th year of Kangxi and to 7.08 million in the 18th year of Qianlong. By the 31st year of Qianlong (1766), it had reached 7.41 million. At the time of Chongzhen in the late Ming Dynasty, there were 7.83 million land (Jian Bozan), which was just close to the number of land in the late Ming Dynasty. It can be seen that the recovery of production in Kangxi, Yongzong and Qianlong was slow. It took a hundred years to reach the production scale of the late Ming Dynasty. The highest was 7.91 million in the 17th year of Jiaqing, which was only more than 70,000 to 80,000 hectares in the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty. It has declined since then. It was 7.37 million in the 13th year of Daoguang. The feudal economy was in stagnation (Fan Wenlan, Compendium of General History of China, page 767).

If the overall level of production does not increase, then why is there such a large population? The reason is that in the late Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi and others vigorously introduced and promoted sweet potatoes, etc., and the yield of this crop was huge. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, crops such as three-season rice, corn and potatoes were also introduced in agriculture, which increased food production. With the promotion of these agricultural technologies, China's land can feed more people.

Matteo Ricci, a missionary in the late Ming Dynasty, said that the material production here is extremely rich and everything is available. The sugar is whiter than Europe, and the cloth is more exquisite than Europe... The people are gorgeously dressed, elegant, and the people are spirited. Pleasant, polite, and well-spoken. (Chapter 10 of "Matteo Ricci's Notes on China"). Macartney, the British envoy who visited during the Qianlong period, said that "there is shocking poverty everywhere," "many people have no clothes to wear," and "the army is as tattered as beggars."

Everyone knows that industry and commerce in the Song Dynasty was extremely developed, and in the Ming Dynasty there was further development. The iron output was two and a half times that of the Northern Song Dynasty. The iron output during the Yongle period was as high as 9,700 tons. By the 17th century, the iron output in Europe was the largest. Russia only has 2,400 tons. But in the Qing Dynasty, the government strictly prohibited mining, and the metallurgical industry declined. In the Ming Dynasty, cotton replaced linen and became the mainstream textile product. Whether it is heavy industries such as iron, shipbuilding, and construction, or light industries such as silk, cotton, and porcelain, it is far ahead in the world. Industrial output accounts for more than 2/3 of the world's total, which is higher than agricultural output. The proportion in the world is much higher. In the heyday of Kangxi and Qianlong, although the population was several times that of the Ming Dynasty, the total output of two index industrial products, iron and cloth, never recovered to the level of the late Ming Dynasty. In 1840, shortly after the end of the Kangxi and Qianlong dynasties, China's industrial output was only 6% of the world's. Both total output and its proportion in the world were not as good as those of the late Ming Dynasty 200 years ago.

Foreign trade in the late Ming Dynasty The amount is astonishing. Frank from the United States, in his book "Silver Capital", based on various existing research results, estimated that from the mid-16th century to the mid-17th century (that is, from the mid-Ming Dynasty to the end of the Ming Dynasty), The amount of silver flowing into China from Eurasian trade was about 7,000 to 10,000 tons, accounting for about 1/3 of the world's total silver production at that time.

Ten thousand tons of silver was equivalent to China's 320 million taels of silver at that time. It is not Europe but China that occupies the position of world economic center. The Qing Dynasty's foreign trade before the Opium War was far lower than that of the Ming Dynasty due to its isolation.

The intellectuals of the Ming Dynasty were open-minded, their maritime military power was very strong, and they always had a welcoming and learning attitude towards the mastery and introduction of advanced technologies. "The navy of the Ming Dynasty was probably more powerful than any other Asian country in history." Even any European country at the same time, and even all European countries united, can be said to be unable to match the navy of the Ming Dynasty." - Joseph Needham. At that time, Yuan Chonghuan killed and wounded Hou Jin at the top of Ningyuan City. The Hongyi cannon came from Portugal. The firearms equipment of the Ming Dynasty was already very advanced. In the first-level military establishment of the late Ming Dynasty, except for 1,000 people who were mounted archers, the rest were firearms operators. Each battalion (5,000 men) used 3,600 thunderbolt cannons, 200 Dalian pearl cannons, 400 handguns, and 160 gun mouths. What a modern piece of equipment this is. With the complete demise of the Ming Dynasty, after Kang, Yong and Qian III. The advanced firearms technology was buried by the Qing Dynasty. By the time of the Opium War, Qing soldiers armed with swords and spears were no longer familiar with firearms.

The Manchu Qing Dynasty conquered the world with their riding and shooting. They had a natural fear and hostility towards firearms and modern military industry, for fear of threatening their rule. When the Qing army presented the Russian trigger-fired matchlock samples captured in the "Yaksa War" to Kangxi, Kangxi kept only two for his own play on the grounds that he could not interrupt the tradition of bows, arrows and spears taught by his predecessors. , and ordered the Qing army to ban the use of this new type of musket. Although mounted archery was still dominant in the late Ming Dynasty, after 200 years of development of firearms, mounted archery was eventually eliminated, and the Chinese did not need it and foreigners still used it. The consequences of blocking advanced technology are ultimately bad consequences. Western countries and Japan's pursuit of novelty, change, and thirst for new things are in sharp contrast to China's conservativeness, unwillingness to change, and indifference to new things. This has laid the seeds for China's decline into a semi-colonial, semi-feudal country, and its near-annihilation. The cause of extinction.

3. From the opening up, exchanges and introduction in the late Ming Dynasty to the isolation of the Qing Dynasty, foreign exchanges ceased.

During the "May 4th Movement", the Chinese finally put forward the idea of ??inviting "Mr. De" and "Mr. Sai". In fact, the first introduction was in the late Ming Dynasty. Let’s talk about “Mr. Sai”. There were many more great scientists in the Ming Dynasty than in the Qing Dynasty. Scientists in the late Ming Dynasty made a historic summary of ancient China’s scientific and technological achievements. The one hundred years from the mid-16th century to the mid-17th century was a star-studded period in the history of science and technology in our country, with various scientific achievements being brilliant. It summarizes all the science and technology in ancient China and reaches an unprecedented peak. At the same time, there appeared five scientific giants: Fang Yizhi, Li Shizhen, Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing, as well as many scientists such as Zhu Zaiyu, Li Zhizao, and Wang Zheng. This is very rare in Chinese history. This just illustrates the vitality of the ideological, cultural and productive forces in the late Ming Dynasty. The great scientist Xu Guangqi was taught by the Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci. He translated "Elements of Geometry". One is Aristotle's "Logic" and the other is "Elements of Geometry". This is the foundation of Western science and the basis for understanding scientific paradigms. Without these, knowledge can only be personal experience, and people cannot establish the most basic concepts of science. Knowledge and experience cannot be transferred. In addition to "Elements of Geometry", there are also "The Theory of the Universe" in mathematics, "Illustrations of Strange Instruments" and "Theory of Telescope" in physics, "Atlas of All Nations" in geography, "Xixuefan" in philosophy, and "Ningli" in logic. "Exploration", Western science and philosophy are being systematically introduced. Western missionary Jinnige brought 7,000 books from Europe, and the Pope also donated more than 500 books. There's a lot of math and astronomy, science, and so on. Many of them have been translated into Chinese. The depth and breadth of the introduction of culture and science and technology was no less than that of the late Qing Dynasty, but the court, government, and intellectuals were much more active and less disturbed than the late Qing Dynasty. In the twelfth year of Chongzhen, the Catholic missionary Bi Fanji directly reported to Emperor Chongzhen the four major strategies of enriching the country and strengthening its army: first, change the calendar, second, identify mineral veins, third, connect with Western merchants, and fourth, purchase Western guns. Emperor Chongzhen played it accurately one after another. It's a pity that Ming died too early and did not have any effect.

"The Chinese Empire is just a dilapidated, crazy warship. If it can still sail over the past 150 years and intimidate its neighbors with a seemingly powerful appearance, it is because of the luck of a few capable captains. Once it encounters With an incompetent person at the helm, everything will fall apart and the ship will be precarious. Even if it does not sink immediately, it will drift like a wreck and eventually be smashed on the coast, and it will never be repaired on the old hull."

“The nation that invented gunpowder was frightened out of their wits at the sight of a cannon, which is incredible.” While the emperors and literati of the Celestial Dynasty were loudly singing the praises of the prosperous times, he believed that the Manchu Qing Dynasty was a world of decline and decline. He pointed out mercilessly: "Eventually it will return to a state of barbarism and poverty"! Another negative consequence of being regarded as a barbarian nation is that the Chinese will not get sympathy from the world if they are massacred by barbarians, and they will still not get sympathy from the world if they are massacred by "civilized people".

5. National oppression is profound, and in some aspects it is the regression of feudalism to slavery.

In order to strengthen its rule, the Manchu Qing savagely implemented the "hair shaving order" and the "retention law", carried out cruel national oppression, and killed all the dignity of the Chinese people. The Manchu Qing Dynasty left a bloody legacy everywhere. There are records of massacres and even genocide. The provinces where large-scale massacres and massacres occurred include Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Sichuan, Fujian, and Xinjiang, including all provinces in China. Kill again. Its cruelty is no less than that of Meng Yuan.

The Manchu Qing Dynasty carried out such brutal massacres. From Nurhachi to Kangxi, the massacre policy lasted for nearly a century. Unprecedented. It was a crime against humanity by past and present standards. I don’t know what crime can be greater than this, what merit can offset such atrocities.

The British envoy Macartney and others recorded this passage: "In the early days of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, they behaved very cruelly. In the first few years after the founding of the People's Republic of China, entire groups of people were massacred. Forced. The pigtails caused riots, and they were suppressed in a pool of blood. The race of masters took control of the country and ruled over a slave nation. Apartheid was comprehensive, and intermarriage between different races was strictly prohibited. The entire North City of Beijing. There are no Han people, only Manchus live there. The female relatives in the palace (including slaves) must be exclusively Manchus to prevent any racial mixing, and the eunuchs in the palace are all Han people without exception. What a symbolic meaning! Let the Tatars breed and the Han people will be extinct. This will definitely ensure that there will be no impure mixing."

In addition to the very heavy national oppression, the Manchus entered the customs. In order to eliminate the remnants of slavery, the Manchu and Qing bannermen also went out to enclose the land and forced the people who had been plundered during the war and the peasants whose land was enclosed into slaves. In the Qing Dynasty, bannermen's crimes were reduced by one level. If Han people were sentenced to three years for crimes, bannermen could be released as long as they were yoked for forty days. If farmers become slaves for various reasons, "all the family members, old and young, become slaves. The Eight Banners landlords can enslave them at will without paying any price. Even the farmers' wives and daughters can be raped and occupied at will. Obviously, these farmers who have become Eight Banners landlords can The relationship with the landlord is that of slave-owner" ("Jian Bozan Historical Essays" p. 256). According to records in "Donghua Lu" and "Ten Dynasties Holy Instructions", the nobles of the Eight Banners often plundered and occupied civilian women in the capital, seized Han people's land and houses, ravaged Han people's tombs, and whipped Han officials. All kinds of atrocities occurred one after another and were commonplace. .

It can be seen that the 265 years of the Manchu Qing Dynasty were the greatest damage and obstacle to advanced productive forces and the greatest destruction to the development of advanced culture. The massacre after the Manchus entered the customs was a crime against the Chinese, and the Manchu rule was enslavement of the Chinese. Is the Manchu Qing worthy of praise?

6. In the middle and late Manchu Qing Dynasty, the most decadent, decadent, and incompetent group of nobles in history emerged. These are the famous "Children of the Eight Banners."

Politically, the Eight Banners disciples had the mentality of "protecting the Qing Dynasty but not China" and always placed their own interests on the opposite side of China's interests. They never fought resolutely to the end in any of the eight anti-aggression wars. It ended with surrender and compromise, which was the fundamental reason for the loss of power and humiliation of the country again and again. It was also the main reason for China's isolation, backwardness in modern times, and the failure of several reforms.

Surprisingly, due to the Manchus' land cession and indemnity, and the opium trade. As the core force of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, the Eight Banners descendants were able to benefit from the unequal treaties in the late Qing Dynasty that humiliated the country and compensated them with money. From 15 to 19 years of Daoguang's reign, due to the influx of opium, an average of 30 million taels of silver were flowing out every year. One tael of silver was exchanged for 700 wen during the Jiaqing period, and was exchanged for 2,000 wen during the Daoguang period. The pay and silver of the children of the Eight Banners will not be short. The money at home has appreciated, and the standard of living of the Eight Banners has increased. The unequal treaty of land cession and compensation after the defeat is good or bad for the Eight Banners nobles. Only they know clearly. For ordinary people, the land tax must be collected in cash. Therefore, the consequences of this national disaster were directly passed on to the ordinary poor Chinese who had no silver but only copper coins.

7. Based on the above analysis, let us look at the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties from the budding state of capitalism

There is no comparison between the Yuan and the Song Dynasty. No one can comment on the Yuan Dynasty. What is the bud of capitalism proposed? What is the comparison between Qing and Ming? Comparing the Qing and Ming Wanli years before imperialist invasion before 1840, the emergence of the capitalist system has always been the result of the simultaneous effects of three factors, namely the economic buds of a new type of capitalism brought about by the development of productive forces, capital ideologies of a communist nature and political interest groups representing capitalism. It was the combined force of the three that led to capitalism's final victory over feudalism. The economic germination of new capitalism temporarily admits that the Ming and Qing dynasties are basically the same. But what about ideology? One is the silence after the end of the literary prison, the silence of thousands of horses, and the isolation of the country. One is active in thinking, forming associations everywhere, with the emergence of the Donglin Party and later the Fushe. Non-governmental associations are very popular to discuss politics. This is an era when great thinkers who criticize the Song and Ming Neo-Confucianism emerge one after another. Li Zhi is one of the representatives. Advanced intellectuals begin to accept Western ideas. Technology and civilization. There are endless works representing citizen culture. Regarding the new political forces of a capitalist nature, one is lifeless, with no associations, rallies, or interest groups. One is a citizen interest group representing capitalism, the handicraftsmen, who started a fierce struggle with the feudal system of the Ming Dynasty. Protests and riots broke out in Suzhou, and the victims even won praise from intellectuals. "The Tombstones of Five People" written by Zhang Pu records and praises this.

If the Manchu and Qing dynasties developed normally and did not encounter imperialist invasion, it is highly doubtful whether the social state of the Manchu and Qing Dynasties could develop to the level of the emergence of capitalism in the late Ming Dynasty. The disadvantage of the Qing Dynasty was that there was the Eight Banners aristocratic group, which represented the most feudal, backward and conservative. This group was a firm obstacle to any reform. The children of the Eight Banners were not engaged in industry or business and looked down on industrial and commercial people, who were on the same side as the national bourgeoisie. Water and fire. It is the most stubborn and powerful obstacle to the development of capitalism in China. If we follow the rules of the rise and fall of dynasties, there will be peasant uprisings and the overthrow of dynasties in about two hundred years. Comparing the peasant uprising in the late Ming Dynasty, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the Boxer Rebellion, which one is more enlightened and advanced? Under the brutal rule of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, the people were numb and ignorant, and superficial foolish religions were prevalent. Even if the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom succeeded, it would be difficult for religious ideas that were out of step with the times and society to promote social development and progress, and needed to be completely reformed. Not to mention the Boxers, who had a hostile attitude towards modern civilization.

It can be seen that the destructive effect of barbarian invasion and even unification on advanced productive forces and production relations cannot be recovered after many years. Isn't this going backwards?

Some people argue that history is moving forward and will not go backwards. This is not exact. "History is moving forward" is based on the general trend. History is inherently full of twists and turns. There is progress but there are twists and turns, and there are twists and turns and there is regression. It took hundreds of years for the bourgeois revolution to finally defeat the feudal autocracy. There were 80 years of feudal restoration after the French Revolution.

How many socialist countries are there in the world today? Some socialist countries originally implemented a capitalist system. From capitalism to socialism and back to capitalism, is this a tortuous process?

Therefore, it is said that the entry of the Manchu and Qing Dynasties into the Customs was a historical setback. This is not based on a single incident, but on the basis of a comprehensive comparison of the actual conditions of the Manchu and Qing Dynasties and the late Ming Dynasty on the basis of productivity and production relations, superstructure and economic foundation. . In particular, the Manchu Qing Dynasty curbed China's great opportunity to develop towards capitalism since the late Ming Dynasty. This is heartbreaking.

"The Manchu Qing's entry into the Customs is a historical retrogression" is not a new view. It has been the mainstream view in the field of history from the "Revolution of 1911" until the 1980s. From the works of Guo Moruo, Fan Wenlan, Jian Bozan and others It is not difficult to see in the writings. In the 1980s, comprador forces began to rise, setting off a wave of national nihilism, condoning national separatist forces and fueling the national superiority and vanity of some ethnic minority elites. Compradors have no motherland and no national self-esteem. Compradors hate nationalism. From the "China territory theory" to the "split theory", to Yu Qiuyu's distortion of history and his publication of "The Back of a Dynasty". To the time when the "Kangxi and Qianlong Dynasties" were eulogized and the CCTV broadcast so-called serious dramas, Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong became wise leaders. They have to live for another five hundred years. How about five hundred more years, can they suppress the "Revolution of 1911"? ? However, the heroic stories of Yue Fei and Wen Tianxiang have become blank in film, television dramas and literary and artistic works.

Finally, the Ministry of Education wants to erase Yue Fei’s title of “national hero”. Ma Dazheng and other writers of Qing history put forward the "theory of justice for the Manchus to enter the country", which became more and more rampant. The academic world and the literary and artistic circles cooperated with each other to stage one farce after another. Whenever someone criticizes someone, they use the labels of "national unity" and "Han chauvinism" as a shield.

What is gratifying is that the central government’s policies are being adjusted, and China will never become a comprador China.