Stories, knowledge and historical events related to porcelain.

China is the first country to invent porcelain in the world, which has written a glorious page for human history. The invention of porcelain can be called "the fifth great invention" in China. Its achievements in technology and art have spread to all countries in the world, and have deeply influenced the development of its ceramics and culture, winning the reputation of "the country of porcelain" for China.

China is the hometown of porcelain, and the invention of porcelain is a great contribution of the Chinese nation to world civilization. In English, the word "China" also means "China". China's early porcelain appeared in the middle of Shang Dynasty in BC16th century. It is generally called "primitive porcelain" because it is still rough in the firing process of the carcass and glaze layer, and the firing temperature is also low, showing originality and transition.

The invention of "porcelain" began in the Han Dynasty and gradually matured in the Tang and Five Dynasties. In Song Dynasty, porcelain industry flourished, including Ding Kiln, Ru Kiln, Official Kiln, Ge Kiln and Equality Kiln. The name is eternal; New products such as blue-and-white and underglaze red appeared in the Yuan Dynasty. Ming dynasty inherited and developed the tradition of Song porcelain and advocated virtue. Chenghua kiln products are particularly prominent; The style of Qing dynasty is quaint and simple, slightly inferior to before, but superior to exquisite, gorgeous and wonderful. The artifacts of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong are outstanding and amazing.

Porcelain was born out of pottery, and its invention was gradually explored by the ancient ancestors of China in the experience of firing white pottery and printing hard pottery. To fire porcelain, three conditions must be met at the same time: first, the raw materials for porcelain making must be porcelain stone, porcelain clay or kaolin rich in minerals such as timely and sericite; Second, the firing temperature must be above 1200℃; Thirdly, the glazed surface fired at high temperature is applied to the surface of the device.

As the product of the transition from pottery to porcelain, primitive porcelain has the characteristics of compact embryo, durability, easy cleaning and gorgeous appearance, so it has broad development prospects. The continuous improvement of firing technology and output of primitive porcelain has laid a foundation for porcelain to gradually replace pottery as the main vessel in China people's daily life.

China porcelain evolved from pottery, and the original porcelain originated more than 3000 years ago. In the Song Dynasty, famous kilns were spread all over most of China, which was the most prosperous period of porcelain industry. At that time, Jun Kiln, Ge Kiln, Guan Kiln, Ru Kiln and Ding Kiln were called five famous kilns. Blue-and-white porcelain produced in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, known as the porcelain capital, became the representative of porcelain. Blue-and-white porcelain enamel is as transparent as water, the tire is thin and light, and white porcelain is painted with blue patterns, which is elegant, fresh and full of vitality. Once blue and white porcelain appeared, it was all the rage and became the crown of Jingdezhen's traditional famous porcelain. Blue-and-white porcelain * * is also called the four famous porcelain, including blue-and-white exquisite porcelain, pastel porcelain and glazed porcelain. In addition, there are porcelain carvings, thin-walled porcelain and multicolored fetal porcelain, all of which are exquisite and unique.

Colored porcelain is one of the great inventions in ancient China. "Porcelain" and "China" are the same word in English, which fully shows that China's exquisite porcelain can be regarded as the representative of China. The real porcelain in China was produced in the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25-220). During this period, on the basis of the development of the production technology of the previous generation of pottery and primitive porcelain, and the prevalence of northerners' southward migration and reburial in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the area centered on Shangyu, Zhejiang Province in eastern China became the birthplace of China porcelain with its unique strip shape. This four-series pot with blue glaze and water ripple unearthed in Mianguan Town, Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province shows us the initial development of porcelain firing technology. The production technology and artistic creation of porcelain in Tang dynasty have reached a very high mature level; In the Song Dynasty, the porcelain industry flourished and famous kilns emerged. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, from blank making, decoration, glazing to firing, the technology surpassed that of the previous generation. China's ceramic industry is still thriving, with high quality and beautiful appearance. Among them, the famous ceramic producing areas are Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, Liling in Hunan, Shiwan in Guangdong, Fengxi, Yixing in Jiangsu, Tangshan in Hebei, Handan and Zibo in Shandong.

There are many kinds of colored porcelain in Qing dynasty, except blue and white, underglaze red and so on, which can be divided into underglaze color and underglaze mixed color. The glaze color is first fired into white glazed porcelain, coated on the white glaze, and then fired at low temperature in the color furnace for the second time. Glaze is rich in color, pastel and enamel are glaze colors. First, the mixed colors of the over-glaze and under-glaze are fired into the under-glaze color (that is, the pattern is directly painted on the porcelain tire, and the transparent glaze is fired at high temperature, mainly blue and white), and then the under-glaze color is painted on the appropriate parts, and then the second low-temperature firing is carried out. Blue and white alum red, bucket color and blue and white multicolor all belong to underglaze mixed color. Finally, the blue-white class is formed; Colored glazed porcelain; Three series of colored porcelain.

It is universally acknowledged that porcelain was invented by China. The invention of porcelain is based on the continuous development and perfection of pottery technology. White pottery in Shang Dynasty took porcelain clay (kaolin) as raw material, and the firing temperature was above 1000℃, which was the basis for the appearance of original porcelain.

The successful firing of white pottery played a very important role in the transition from pottery to porcelain.

The "green glaze ware" found in Shang Dynasty and Western Zhou Dynasty sites obviously has the basic characteristics of porcelain. Their texture is thinner and harder than pottery, and their tires are mostly gray. The sintering temperature is as high as1100-1200 c, and the fetal quality is basically sintered, with weak water absorption. Coat the surface of the device with a layer of lime glaze. But they are not exactly the same as porcelain. It is called "primitive porcelain" or "primitive celadon".

After the appearance of Shang Dynasty, primitive porcelain experienced changes and development during the period of 1600- 1700, from immaturity to maturity.

From the unearthed cultural relics, the porcelains made in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties are mostly celadon. These celadons are finely processed, hard and non-absorbent, and the surface is coated with a layer of cyan glass glaze. This high-level porcelain-making technology marks that China porcelain production has entered a new era.

China's white glazed porcelain sprouted in the Southern and Northern Dynasties and reached a mature stage in the Sui Dynasty. There were new developments in the Tang Dynasty. The firing temperature of porcelain reaches 1200℃, and the whiteness of porcelain reaches over 70%, which is close to the modern fine porcelain standard. This achievement laid the foundation for the development of underglaze and overglaze porcelain.

In Song Dynasty, the embryo quality, glaze color and manufacturing technology of porcelain were improved, and the firing technology of porcelain reached a fully mature level. Technically, there is a clear division of labor, which is an important stage in the development of China porcelain. There are many famous kilns in the Song Dynasty, including Yaozhou Kiln, Cizhou Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, Longquan Kiln, Yue Kiln and Jian Kiln, as well as products such as Ru Kiln, Guan Kiln, Ge Kiln, Jun Kiln and Ding Kiln, which are known as the five famous kilns in the Song Dynasty, all of which have their own unique styles. Yaozhou kiln (Tongchuan, Shaanxi) has exquisite products, thin fetal bones and uniform glaze color; Cizhou Kiln (Pengcheng, Hebei Province) takes magnetic mud as the blank, so porcelain is also called porcelain. Cizhou Kiln mostly produces white porcelain with black flowers; Jingdezhen kiln products are thin, shiny, exquisite light-induced, and have high whiteness and transparency, which is one of the representative works of promoting porcelain in Song Dynasty. The products of Longquan kiln are mostly pink or turquoise, and the glaze color is gorgeous and bright; The porcelain fired in Yue Kiln is thin, delicate and beautiful. The black porcelain produced in Jian Yao is one of the famous porcelains in Song Dynasty, and its black glaze is as bright as lacquer. Ru kiln is the crown of the five famous kilns in Song Dynasty. The glaze color of porcelain is mainly light blue, and the color is clear and moist. Whether the official kiln exists has always been a controversial issue. General scholars believe that the official kiln is the official kiln in Bianjing, and the kiln site is in Bianjing to burn porcelain for the court. Where the Ge kiln is fired has always been a controversial issue. Based on the analysis of all kinds of data, the most likely firing place of Ge kiln is the same production as the official kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty; There are many colored porcelains fired in Jun kiln, and the porcelains in carmine, turquoise and ink are also good. The porcelain produced by Ding Kiln is thin, shiny, moist and white as powder, which is called powder setting or white setting.

The development of glaze color of ancient Chinese ceramics is from unglazed to glazed, from monochromatic glaze to multicolored glaze, and then from underglaze color to overglaze color, and gradually develops to multi-color and bucket color of underglaze and overglaze color.

Colored porcelain is generally divided into underglaze color and underglaze color. The colored porcelain painted on the green body first and then fired in the kiln is called underglaze color. Glazed porcelain fired in a kiln is painted and then baked in a fire, which is called glazed porcelain. The famous blue and white porcelain in Ming Dynasty is an underglaze color.

Fine white glaze was successfully fired in Ming Dynasty, and monochrome glazed porcelain with copper as colorant was successfully fired, which made Ming Dynasty porcelain rich and colorful. The diversification of glaze methods of Ming dynasty porcelain indicates the continuous progress of porcelain-making technology in China. During Chenghua's reign, he created the "Doucai" with the outline of underglaze blue and white, and during Jiajing and Wanli's reign, he made colorful colors drawn directly in various colors without blue and white borders, all of which were famous treasures. Porcelain in Qing Dynasty developed further on the basis of outstanding achievements in Ming Dynasty, and porcelain-making technology reached a brilliant realm. Plain tricolor and multicolor in Kangxi period, famille rose and enamel in Yongzheng and Qianlong periods are all world famous products.

In the Ming Dynasty, a kind of porcelain was made by adding glaze color to the outline of underglaze blue and white. Because underglaze blue and white and underglaze colored paintings compete with each other, it is named "Doucai".

Porcelain imitating the enamel effect of copper tires in Qing Dynasty. Enamel color is also called "material color".

"Silk Road" and "Ceramic Road"

Silk and ceramics are two treasures that China people have dedicated to the world, which to some extent changed the lifestyle and values of the nationalities used. People in Islam use blue-and-white porcelain plates in China to hold rice and vegetables, and then many people gather around and enjoy them together. Filipinos and other ethnic groups worship China ceramics as sacred objects; Africans decorate porcelain on mosques, palaces and other buildings. The ancient Romans regarded China's silk as a luxury of the upper class and ladies, and it triggered a debate about silk and morality around the first century. The appearance of silk and ceramics as material products is not only useful and durable, but also the two avenues extended from it have completely changed the relationship between China and the world.

The Silk Road began in the Western Han Dynasty, starting from Xi 'an, the capital at that time, passing through Hexi Corridor, along the ancient city of Loulan, passing through Alashankou, and leaving Central Asia, West Asia, Rest in Peace and Daqin. Of course, this is the most important passage of the Silk Road. In addition, it is also distributed in the southwest, southeast and south of China. Therefore, the geographical features of the Silk Road include deserts, grasslands, plateaus, mountains, plains and oceans. It contains untold hardships and bitterness. The "Silk Road" originated from silk and gradually evolved into the later cultural road. In modern times, it is named "Eurasia Continental Bridge", making it the mother of many cultures in the world. On this road, the most successful communication is religion. This historical moment of 60 BC is destined to shine brilliantly in the history of China since Zhang Qian was sent to the Western Regions and Gan Ying was sent to Daqin in the Han Dynasty. In the following years, "the spring breeze passed Yumenguan", and there was also a new diplomatic relationship of "advising you to drink less, and the west has old friends". It is this road that makes China people know Persians, Arabs, Greeks, Romans, Japanese, Koreans, Indians and authentic Europeans. ...

The term "Silk Road" was put forward by German geologist Richthofen in 1877. He came to China seven times along this commercial road and wrote three volumes of China. Later "cultural messengers"-Stein in Britain, Peliott in France and Swinheddin in Sweden-also followed the footsteps of their peers and peeped into the mysteries of China culture. To this end, many priceless treasures are scattered all over the world. A century ago, Wang, an ignorant Taoist in China, guarded Buddhist temples and caves and gave up almost half of Dunhuang's cultural wealth with just a few coppers. Fortunately, these cultural relics have been properly preserved and disseminated. I wonder if China people in this world should take a good look at how westerners treat culture and traditions. Are they really thoughtless in front of these cultural relics? Happily, UNESCO began to implement the ten-year plan of "Silk Road Inspection" in 1988, with the theme of "Silk Road: A Comprehensive Inspection of the Road to Dialogue", which further established the important position of this trade route in the history of world cultural exchanges.

"China Road" originated in the middle and late Tang Dynasty, and was the maritime artery of communication between China and foreign countries in the Middle Ages. Because the nature of porcelain is different from silk, it is not suitable for land transportation, so the sea is chosen. This is the second "Eurasian Continental Bridge". There are still many commodities spread along this trade route, such as tea, spices and gold and silver vessels. The reason why it was named "Ceramic Road" is mainly because of the nature of porcelain trade. Some people call this maritime trade road "Maritime Silk Road". But one thing is certain: in the middle and late Tang Dynasty, due to the rise of the Turkish Empire and other reasons, the status of the "Silk Road on Land" began to weaken. The "Ceramic Road" starts from the southeast coast of China, along the East China Sea and the South China Sea, through the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea to the east coast of Africa or through the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt. Or from the southeast coast to Japan and Korea. China porcelain tiles scattered along this commercial road, like glittering pearls, illuminate the whole Southeast Asia, Africa and the Arab world. According to the historical records of the Tang Dynasty, there were seven ways to communicate with foreign countries, mainly two: Anxi entered the western regions and Guangzhou entered the sea, that is, the "Silk Road on Land" and the "Ceramic Road on the Sea". The prosperity of commerce in the Tang Dynasty was not only reflected in Chang 'an, but also in Yangzhou in the southeast. Yangzhou is known as "the richest man in the world", otherwise there would be no "Yangzhou Fireworks in March" by Li and "Yangzhou Ten-year Dream" by Du Mu. If the "Silk Road" on land brought religious piety to China, then the "Ceramic Road" brought huge commercial wealth to China and opened the door for colonial plunder. Therefore, the "ceramic road" after 16 and 17 centuries, in a sense, became the road of colonial plunder.

"The Road of Ceramics" was put forward by Japanese archaeologist Mr. Mikami Tsugio in 1960s. As an important member of the Japanese cultural investigation team in the Middle East, the archaeological excavation in Fostat (present-day Cairo) in Egypt completely opened the heart of this man who has a fascination with China ceramics. Therefore, he will study the archaeological achievements of China ceramics all over the world for many years, and write The Way of Ceramics, a ceramic book that affects the world, with far-reaching significance. It has won wide acclaim in the field of ceramics in Japan and even the world. At the same time, The Road to Ceramics made the world know and understand the China with the same name as China again.

As two treasures of China, ceramics and silk have also won the reputation of "the country of porcelain" and "the country of silk" for China. However, the names of these two roads are given by western scholars, which is really worth thinking about.

Japan:

Japan and the east coast of China are separated only by a strip of water, and there have been frequent exchanges since ancient times. As early as the Warring States Period, the Japanese on the Japanese archipelago had contacts with the ancient Yan State, which is located in present-day northeast China and Korea. ("Shan Hai Jing Hai Nei Bei Jing" Note: "The Japanese are swallows". ) Qin Yan, some Han people fled to North Korea and went further to Japan; Subsequently, the exchanges between Japan and China became closer. China's Chinese characters, Confucianism, China's calligraphy and painting, Buddhism, China's school system, laws and regulations, etc. , have had a comprehensive impact on Japan. Zhejiang, the birthplace of Yueyao porcelain, is also closely related to Japan: rice in Hemudu, Yuyao, Buddhism in Ningbo, tea art on the rooftop, paintings in eastern Zhejiang and so on. Have forged an indissoluble bond with Japan. Historical facts prove that the sea passage between China and Japan was opened in the 2nd century BC. In the middle and late Tang Dynasty, Yue kiln celadon was exported to Japan. At this time, there were many kinds of porcelain introduced to Japan, including tri-color Tang, celadon, white porcelain and underglaze. The discovery sites of Yue kiln celadon in Japan are as follows: nearly 2,500 pieces were found in Hung Hom Pavilion site, which is very large; Nearly 50 celadon sites in Yueyao were found in the western coastal areas. In Horyuji, Nara, a four-system celadon pot with a height of 26.4cm, a caliber of 13.6cm and a bottom diameter of 10. 1cm was preserved. Tang Dynasty porcelain box unearthed from Ningna Temple in Kyoto; Li Ming Temple found three legs in Tang Dynasty. A flat-bottomed foot bowl with inclined straight walls and narrow sides was unearthed from Pingchengjing site. A pot with two ears was found in the city of Liezhi; In addition, it has been unearthed in Fukuoka, Yamamoto and Westinghouse, which have been dying for a long time.

Discrimination between Longquan porcelain and counterfeit

Wang Lu

To say Longquan porcelain, we must first say Longquan kiln.

Speaking of China's old kiln porcelain, people often recommend the five famous kilns in the Song Dynasty, that is, your official kiln Junding Pavilion. Longquan celadon, which originated in the Northern Song Dynasty, seems to have a lower grade. In fact, high-quality Longquan ancient porcelain has always been favored by collectors.

Longquan kiln is located in Longquan area in southern Zhejiang, adjacent to Fujian. Porcelain kilns have existed since the Han Dynasty, but what is truly recognized by the world is the celadon of the Northern Song Dynasty. Longquan porcelain is named after the region and will be followed in the future.

In the 800-year firing history of Longquan kiln from Song Dynasty to Qing Dynasty, different historical periods have distinct times styles. Longquan kiln in the Southern Song Dynasty is famous for its jade-like pink and plum green, which is deeply loved by people at home and abroad. Since then, according to market demand and people's preferences, businessmen have copied Longquan kiln products.

In China, Jingdezhen imitates Longquan kiln products for the longest time. From Yuan Dynasty to Qing Dynasty, there were many kinds of imitators because of the superb firing skills of porcelain. Its biggest feature is that it does not mechanically imitate Longquan kiln products, but innovates the varieties and shapes of utensils on the basis of paying attention to glaze color.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, people from Japan, Germany and the United States came to Longquan to collect celadon one after another, and then a large number of antique dealers came to China, which triggered the wind of stealing ancient kiln sites and ancient tombs in Longquan. At the same time, the local development of antique celadon in Longquan flourished, and a number of folk porcelain artists joined in. During the reign of Guangxu and Xuantong in Qing Dynasty, antique celadon made by Sun Keng, Fan Zujian and Zuqiu brothers was once famous. By the early years of the Republic of China, almost all the antiques made by Liao (Qing Xiucai) in the county were genuine.

1956, Longquan porcelain factory resumed production. Zhejiang Museum has a batch of products that imitate Longquan kiln after liberation, mainly based on the shape of Longquan kiln in the Southern Song Dynasty, such as Pisces Wash, Plough Furnace, Peony Pattern Bottle, etc. But imitation is not intentional.

Since 1980s, some large Longquan porcelain factories have produced a large number of Longquan kiln celadon in the form of antique handicrafts.

In recent years, with the upsurge of cultural relics collection, in order to obtain high profits, various cultural relics fraud came into being. The forgery of Longquan kiln celadon is mainly identified from the following aspects:

1. Device type

Imitation burning often chooses the typical products of Longquan kiln in different times, such as the holding pot and five-tube bottle in the Northern Song Dynasty, lotus petal bowl, phoenix ear bottle and Ru kiln in the Southern Song Dynasty, peony pattern vase, carved plate and various incense burners in the Yuan Dynasty. Imitation products are rarely fired in contrast to the real thing, so the lines are dull and lack charm, the neck and shoulder turning point is stiff, the foot end is too neat, the proportion of utensils is out of balance, and the specifications and sizes of utensils are not standardized.

2. Fetal glaze

The glaze and tire of Longquan kiln have their specific composition and corresponding firing process in each era. Longquan kiln has different tire colors in different periods, including coarse and fine, glazed and textured.

The imitation firing of pink and plum glazes adopts the traditional formula instead of the chemical formula, that is, the plant plant ash is selectively added to the porcelain clay. Although the texture of glaze is very similar, it lacks a feeling of introversion and massiness, and often floats.

In the Ming Dynasty, Longquan kiln bean green glaze porcelain has a thick tire wall and a rough bottom, which is easy to master in modern imitation. This kind of products should be carefully distinguished. An important process of making fakes is to polish the glazed surface of utensils, mainly using strong acid solution corrosion, soil burial and some industrial technologies to polish. In recent years, experts and scholars have summarized the different images of the damaged surface of old utensils under high magnification microscope, which has improved the scientific level of identifying ancient ceramics.

Step 3: decorations

The fake carving patterns of Longquan kiln are not as smooth as the real lines. The pattern of applique technology is not as vivid and natural as the real thing. Exposing tires is the most distinctive decoration technology of Longquan kiln in Yuan Dynasty. The unique blue glaze color of Longquan kiln in Yuan Dynasty is in contrast with the bare ochre red, and the counterfeit provides an identification point for imitation burning of such products.

4. Firing method

The charging and firing technology of Longquan kiln is different in each development period. There are two kinds of tools for pad burning: gasket and pad cake, but the pad on the ring foot is different in different times, leaving different burn marks in different times. Especially the "iron feet" and "cinnabar feet" of Longquan kiln products in the Southern Song Dynasty are often irregular. In the Yuan Dynasty, the traces of washers and the exposed tires of funerary wares exposed "flint red". The early products of Longquan kiln are very complete and rare, leaving some defects, mainly in the circle foot part. Therefore, counterfeiters often use the method of "slightly broken rice at the bottom or edge" or sticking kiln slag to deceive people.