Please talk about the rationality and modernity of China's traditional political thought.

My opinion on Mencius' theory of "benevolence"

After the establishment of the exclusive position of Confucianism, it never wavered in the whole feudal dynasty, but it was unfairly vilified in the period of modern social transformation and contemporary social unrest. The reason for this is, of course, inseparable from its theoretical thinking, including the influence of the times. As a new force of Confucianism, Mencius' theory has been highly praised. There are many discussions about his theory of "benevolence" in academic circles. These brilliant theories are fair and objective, but they are also suspected of being partial and flattering. The development of the times provides us with a new perspective to reflect on Mencius' theory and these viewpoints.

First, the origin and concept of "benevolence"

Mencius was not the first person to explain "benevolence", but Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, had many grand views on "benevolence", which only constituted an isolated concept in Confucius' time. "If there is a monarch, there will be benevolence in the world", and "If people are unkind, what will the ceremony do?" People are ruthless, such as "happiness" [1] and so on. They all use the word "benevolence" to express their thoughts, and rarely use other words to match them, as can be seen from the following quotations.

The content of Confucius' "benevolence" is extremely extensive, and it is mostly a matter of personal moral (character) cultivation. At the beginning of the Analects of Confucius, "learning to be excellent is to be an official" means that "serving a gentleman is the foundation of benevolence and filial piety is the foundation". It seems that the root of "benevolence" lies in "filial piety". Even if there is a problem with this statement, many of Confucius' expositions on "benevolence" are expounded from this. The same chapter also said, "Clever words make color and fresh benevolence" [2], "Disciples are filial when they enter, filial when they leave, sincere and trustworthy, and love the masses and benevolence". From the above remarks, it can be seen that "benevolence" in Confucius' eyes is a question of how to be a man-self-cultivation (the premise of running a house, governing a country and leveling the world), and ".

In answering the question of what "benevolence" is, Confucius' thought is particularly prominent. His disciples have repeatedly asked questions about "benevolence", but Confucius' answers are never the same. Yan Yuan asked Ren, and Confucius said, "Ke has been rehabilitated once a day. How does the world return to benevolence? Benevolent, by people? " Yan Yuan then asked about the specific practice. Confucius said, "see no evil, don't listen to evil, don't say evil, and don't move if you are evil." This is an explanation of Confucius' theory of benevolence. As far as Yan Hui himself is concerned, "benevolence" lies in "acting according to etiquette". Confucius made it very clear what the steps are, so Yan Hui immediately replied: "Although it is not sensitive, please take care of it." [4] Obviously, the "benevolence" here is a personal personality problem, not a social problem, which emphasizes the personal code of conduct, that is, the cultivation problem [5]. Fan Chi asked "benevolence" three times, and Confucius said "love" in Yanyuan. In "Forever Night", it is said that "the benevolent is rare first, and then the benevolent can be said"; "Lutz" said, "Be respectful at home, respect deacons and be loyal to others. Although arrogant, you can't abandon it. " It can be seen that the meaning of "benevolence" varies from time to time. Although the three answers are different, the main idea is to tell Fan Chi the truth of being a man, that is, how to be "benevolent". Confucius Ceng Yun "takes Tao as the aim, virtue as the support, benevolence as the support, and art as the tour", said "resolute, wooden, slow and close to benevolence", and also said "can do five things in the world, be benevolent", that is, "respect, tolerance, faith, sensitivity and benefit" [6], where benevolence and Tao, virtue, art and benefit.

Whoever can meet the requirements of "benevolence" can be called "benevolent", so Confucius' explanation of "benevolence" means "benevolence". "I went, Ji Zi was its slave, and he died in protest." Confucius said, "Yin has three benevolence"; "The knower enjoys water, the benevolent enjoys mountains, the knower moves, the benevolent is quiet, and the knower enjoys life" [7], it seems unnecessary to give more examples. How easy is benevolence? For Confucius, "benevolence" seems easy. "Is benevolence far from zai?" I want benevolence, I am benevolence. "[8]. What is the actual situation? In the industrial field, Meng asked Confucius if Lu, Qiu and Chi were benevolent. Confucius answered "I don't know" and immediately explained that "your country (Luz) is a thousand times, which can make it rule by Fu, and I don't know its benevolence; Seeking also, knowing the city of the house and the home of a hundred times, can make it kill, but I don't know its benevolence; Red is also, with the establishment of the dynasty, can make the king and the guest without knowing their benevolence. "This shows that it is not easy.

Mencius' exposition of "benevolence" is far less complicated than that of Confucius, and it is rare to use "benevolence" alone. More people use words like "benevolence", "benevolent government" and "benevolence", and "benevolence" has become a modifier noun, and its main meaning seems to have shifted. Through the development of Mencius, the meaning of "benevolence" has a clear direction, which can be understood and summarized more specifically. This is why scholars talk more about "Mencius' benevolence" and limit themselves to "benevolent politics".

In fact, Mencius' "benevolence" can not be summarized only by the theory of benevolence, which can be divided into narrow sense and broad sense. The narrow sense of "benevolence" is what scholars call "the theory of benevolent government", while the broad sense of "benevolence" includes other meaning such as "benevolence" and "personal cultivation", which is also where Mencius inherited Confucius' theory. As far as the latter is concerned, it occupies a certain proportion in Mencius' exposition, "How can a benevolent person be in office and walk without the people" [9]; This is Mencius' high hope for "benevolent people". "Benevolent people can make big things small, so the soup is a matter of ge, and the king of literature is a matter of Kun" [10], which is Mencius' admiration for "benevolent people". For Confucius and Mencius, the benevolent is invincible. "Benevolence is the heart" and "Benevolence, propriety and wisdom are rooted in the heart" [1 1], which emphasizes the issue of personal cultivation. "Benevolence" is Mencius' repeated personal code of conduct. "Benevolence is the truth, and filial piety is the only thing", and Yao Shun's "Unkind people can't rule the world" [12] is obviously the recognition and approval of Confucius' statement that filial piety is also the foundation of benevolence. Mencius inherited many things from Confucius, not superfluous.

If Mencius just inherited it behind closed doors, the influence would not be so great. He didn't ossify "benevolence", but applied it to politics, which resulted in the narrow sense of "benevolent politics". This is the place where scholars have repeatedly commented on [13], and it is also the issue I want to focus on.

Second, reflection on the theory of "benevolent government"

The theory of benevolent government is the main body of Mencius' political thought, which not only has a complete system, but also has the possibility of practice at that time. Some scholars believe that the philosophical theoretical basis of his "benevolent policy" is "the theory of good nature", and "benevolent policy" conforms to human nature and is inseparable from human innate goodness [14]. Whether this conclusion can be established is uncertain, but it is doubtful. Although Xunzi holds the theory of "evil nature", he is not completely opposed to "benevolent politics". And for thousands of years, human nature has remained unchanged, but politics has been changing. How human nature is related to political ideas remains to be demonstrated. If benevolent governance is the result of "good nature", then it must be a castle in the air and only regarded as an ideal.

The integrity of Mencius' theory of benevolent governance is not reflected in its philosophical basis, but Mencius has at least talked about its economic and political (realistic) basis. The former is the well field system, which is recorded in Teng Wengong. After the war, Teng Wengong asked Mencius about the "minefield". Mencius said: "The prince of the son must be benevolent, and the husband must be benevolent. He will be at the beginning of the border, and the border will be correct. He can sit down and decide, please help him in the wild, even the junior high school is donated by himself. There will be Guitian, 50 acres of Guitian under your name. The specific details include "a house with five acres, mulberry under the tree wall, and female silkworms riding on it, then the old people will have enough clothes and silks, five chickens and two mothers, and they will not lose time. The old people will have enough meat, and the husband will plow 100 acres of land, and the family of eight will be hungry", so "the benevolent people think they have returned" [15]. Not going against the farming season "is the beginning of kingly way", "The house is five acres, the trees are mulberry trees, fifty people can wear clothes and silks, chickens, dolphins and dogs can eat livestock without losing time, seventy people can eat meat, and hundreds of acres of land can eat without losing time, so several people in a family can eat without starving", so "seventy people eat clothes and silks, not being king, but not hungry. The implementation of the well-field system can win the hearts of the people and recruit benevolent people, thus realizing the king's government (benevolent government).

The political basis of Mencius' benevolent policy can also be said to be the realistic basis, that is, the people-oriented thought. Scholars have talked about it more, which is only a little supplement. Confucius' experience is more the collapse of the "system of rites and music". Restoring "etiquette" is his key and ultimate goal to solve political and practical problems. History has proved that his efforts are just a farce. The changes in economic and political systems brought about by the progress of productive forces were more drastic during the Warring States Period. How to win in the war and defend our country in the hegemony was a concern of the rulers at that time, and it was also an urgent question for philosophers to say, "Is the world evil?" Book one "[17], which is the common wish of a hundred schools of thought. Mencius looked forward to the king's administration in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but he couldn't stop at Confucius' method. He must improve the methods and approaches of "I am depressed about literature, and I am with Zhou". Confucius said that he was "tyrannical" and asked those in power to "make the people timely". It is also said that "ruling the country by virtue is like Beichen, living in its place and surrounded by stars" [18]. Mencius' theory of benevolent governance is an expansion of Confucius' pursuit of rites and music, and a development of Confucius' severe punishment and rule of virtue.

The connotation of Mencius' "Benevolence Thought" is all-encompassing, and some scholars have summarized it into three aspects. Economically, it has the material basis of controlling people's property, sparing tax collection, developing agricultural production without violating farming season, persisting in social division of labor and attaching importance to commerce, with the aim of enriching the people and governing the world; Politically, following the example of benevolent government, combining leniency with severity, having fun with the people and selecting talents is the direct result of benevolent government. Education advocates the rule of virtue [19]. This summary basically summarizes Mencius' thought of "benevolent government". In addition, Mencius emphasized that in the war, the occupied countries should also implement "benevolent government". Mencius' "Benevolence Thought" contains many contents and covers a wide range, which does not mean that his theory is unfathomable. On the contrary, Mencius believed that any ruler could practice what he called "benevolent government" as long as he wanted. When Liang first met Mencius, he said how to benefit the country. Mencius regarded it as "benevolence", followed by "king", that is, "benevolent government", and he did this without a king [20]. "Next" contains Zhang Wan's worry that the Song Dynasty was ruled by a small country, and "Qi and Chu were cut down for evil", while Mencius said that "if you rule it, you will be the first hope of the four seas and want to be a monarch." Although Qi and Chu are big, how can they be? "

Although Confucius and Mencius spared no effort in propaganda and lobbying, the influence of "moral politics" and "benevolent politics" at that time was extremely limited, but it left us a lot of room for reflection. The "rites and music" emphasized by Confucius is that fashion has legal functions, not just personal moral cultivation. "Virtue politics" requires the comprehensive application of "ceremony, punishment and morality", and its standardization also has a clear direction-the peaceful and prosperous times of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the social function of the Duke of Zhou to make music and ceremonies. Later, due to the needs of feudal rulers, the concept and orientation of "rites and music" gradually narrowed, and its social function gradually became rigid. For example, Sima Qian discussed the characteristics of Confucianism in The Essentials of Six Families, emphasizing only the hierarchical system of Confucianism and not the rest. Therefore, Confucius's "rites and music" gradually lost its existing legal function, became a moral standard that people should abide by, and began to imprison people's thoughts, especially the discrimination and bondage to women, which was the biggest misinterpretation of "rites and music". "Rites and music" no longer point to society, but to individuals, a certain range of individuals.

Mencius' theory of benevolent governance is developed from Confucius' theory of rule by virtue. In Mencius' view, benevolent governance can achieve the goal of "ruling the world" in turbulent war times, but of course this theory has not been finally realized. But why is the Confucian "benevolent government thought" enduring? The moral significance of the theory of benevolent government is one of the reasons why the study of Confucius and Mencius has been immortal for thousands of years. Implementing "benevolent government" during the period of reunification and Taiping can lead to governing the world. In the eyes of the people, managing the world is the result of a good emperor's benevolent policy, and troubled times are the result of a tyrant's benevolent policy. The quality of the emperor is who is diligent in political affairs, thinks for the world, benefits the world and conducts benevolent government. Throughout the long history of China, the rule of man has always occupied an important position, and the direct expression of the rule of man is the moral code. Mencius' theory of benevolence is just how to ask the rulers, and its specific administrative contents are mostly big things, without specific norms and dogmas. Although personal cultivation is emphasized, it is only the cultivation of personal morality, not the grasp of law and rule of law. Morality and politics are integrated. The rule of man has disadvantages, and the division of fairness and justice between officials in power, law and morality is biased towards moral requirements. In Yunmeng Qin bamboo slips and Yu Shu, "Fa" was repeatedly emphasized, indicating that in the early days of China's autocratic system, there was a good start, but it was not inherited and carried forward. After all, morality is more conspicuous and easier to understand for human nature. This is the result of Mencius' theory of benevolent governance. Although it is not entirely attributed to Mencius' contribution, its origin is unavoidable. The legal system excludes moral interference, and Confucianism regards morality as an important content as far as possible. It is easy for people to govern the country on the basis of morality. The prison sentence in Spring and Autumn Annals itself is a destruction of the law and a static understanding of the times. Therefore, Ji An conducted a moral trial on Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.

The combination of "benevolence" and politics is "benevolent politics", and the subject is biased towards the political category; The combination of propriety, righteousness and wisdom is a matter of personal cultivation, which belongs more to the category of morality. Morality is a voluntary behavior of individuals without coercion. In Confucius and Mencius' view, both the rule of virtue and the policy of benevolence are based on personal cultivation. If it can be implemented in practice, it will definitely have its role. The same is true of today's governance. Our party has a series of principles, programs and purposes. If these can be truly implemented, it will certainly benefit the country and the people, but once it is out of shape, there will be no idea.