During the Spring and Autumn Period in which Lao Tzu lived, the princes were in chaos, and the rulers were arrogant, greedy, and indulgent, causing the people to live in dire straits. In this situatio

During the Spring and Autumn Period in which Lao Tzu lived, the princes were in chaos, and the rulers were arrogant, greedy, and indulgent, causing the people to live in dire straits. In this situation, Laozi put forward the idea of ??inaction and called on rulers to "rule by inaction." He said: "I do nothing and the people become themselves. I like to be quiet and the people are upright. I do nothing and the people become rich. I have no desires and the people are simple."

"Good tranquility" is proposed in response to the harassment of the ruler, "inaction" is proposed in response to the ruler's tyranny, and "no desire" is proposed in response to the ruler's greed. Lao Tzu believes that politicians should be able to "rule by doing nothing", manage without interfering, and have a monarch without oppression. By allowing the people to develop and improve themselves, the people will be able to be peaceful and prosperous, and society will naturally be harmonious and stable.

"Inaction" means not doing anything that violates the laws of nature, damages moral norms, violates social laws, and is harmful to all living beings. But "inaction" here does not mean doing nothing or not doing anything, but it means not acting recklessly, not acting randomly, complying with the objective situation, and respecting the laws of nature. Lao Tzu once said, "Do nothing without doing anything", which means: If you don't act rashly, there will be nothing you can't accomplish. Here, "do nothing" is an attitude and method of dealing with the world, and "do nothing" refers to the effect of not doing anything rashly. Lao Tzu once said, "If you do nothing, everything will be cured." This means that if you treat social life with a "do nothing" attitude, nothing will be impossible or bad. Therefore, the "inaction" that Laozi talks about is not passive waiting and doing nothing, but "doing without doing", "doing without relying on", "doing without fighting", that is, "doing" with the attitude of "doing nothing" , to give full play to people’s subjective initiative.

There are things you should do and things you should not do

What Lao Tzu said about "governing by doing nothing" and "doing nothing without doing anything" does not mean sitting there and doing nothing. It was also done. In the era when Laozi lived, the people worked at sunrise and rested at sunrise, and were self-sufficient. There was no need for rulers to organize production and exchange, or to use anyone to "do" things. Everything happened naturally. Once the ruler "does", he will impose heavy taxes to build luxurious palaces, or he will arrest people to launch a war to annex other countries. In this way, "doing" will cause the people to suffer and social unrest, while "doing nothing" will make the people comfortable and the society peaceful. Therefore, "Wuwei" means not to act rashly and not to act haphazardly. It means that the behavior of rulers must comply with the laws of nature and social development, and establish corresponding laws and systems in accordance with the laws and not change them easily. People should give full play to their intelligence and talents and work hard under such laws and systems.

"Inaction" pursues dedication, and the result of "inaction" is precisely "making a difference" (having dedication).

Success without fighting

Among all things in nature, Lao Tzu praises water the most. He believes that "non-contention" is a quality of the beautiful "water virtue". Lao Tzu once said, "Water benefits all things without fighting." The "non-fighting" here refers to selflessness. Water nourishes and nourishes all things, but does not strive for anything from all things that benefits itself; second, it refers to not fighting with the world. Not only does it not compete with the things it nourishes, it does not compete with anything in the world.

"Because it does not fight, no one in the world can fight with it."

"If you stand without fighting, you will have no worries; if you stand without fighting, you will achieve success."

"Conflict without fighting" and governance by inaction (Nanfang Daily)

Liu Xiaoqing

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the nobleman Deng Sui was favored by Emperor He, and Queen Yin was very jealous. But Deng Sui was humble and gentle, and respected the Yin family very much. When Emperor He came to see Emperor He at the same time as Yin, Deng Sui never sat upright; every time Emperor He asked a question, Deng Sui always let Yin speak first and never competed with Yin for the talk; whenever he found that his clothes were the same as those of Yin or When they were close, Deng Sui would immediately replace him and never compete with the Yin family for the limelight. Despite this, the Yin family still practiced witchcraft with others in an attempt to kill Deng Sui. In view of the sharp contrast between Yin's tyranny and insidiousness and Deng Sui's humility and tolerance, Emperor He imprisoned Yin and insisted on making her queen even when Deng Sui resigned due to illness. This story is recognized by later historians as a typical example of "dispute without dispute".

The "fight without fighting" here is similar in principle to the leadership method of "governing by doing nothing".

In this chaotic era, the social, moral, and political order established by Zhou Wen is facing collapse. The Zhou Wen used to maintain this order became a mere formality. Confucianism wants to use benevolence and righteousness to enrich this external frame, while Laozi and Zhuangzi believe that things like Wen, etiquette, benevolence, and righteousness are all external forms. Even if they can achieve social order, this order is not an ideal order. In this unideal order, people are restrained and cannot obtain true freedom and liberation.

Like Confucian philosophy, Taoist philosophy is basically a study of inner sage and virtue. Its ultimate concern is personal cultivation and becoming a virtuous person [6]. However, cultivation and virtue cannot be accomplished without society, and if society does not have democracy, its existence will be in danger. Taoists are not political anarchists. Taoists put forward a set of ideas about what an ideal political order is. This set of ideas is the theory of "governing by doing nothing". This theory has an inseparable relationship with Taoist inner sage and metaphysical theories. The most important tenet of Taoist inner sage and metaphysical theories is to teach people to follow nature and act according to one's will, without being deliberate. The five types of people listed in Zhuangzi's "Deliberate Chapter": the people of the valley, the people of ordinary times, the people of the court, the people of the rivers and seas, and the people of Daoyin, are all people who are deliberate and not in compliance with nature. These people violate nature and therefore are not enlightened people. Zhuangzi believes that only a humble sage can achieve "loftiness without deliberate intention, cultivation without benevolence and righteousness, rule without fame and fame, idleness without rivers and seas, longevity without Taoism, forget everything, and have everything". Only such people can follow nature and gain self-liberation. The reason why heaven and earth are so big is that they can conform to nature and thus achieve all things. Therefore, Laozi said: "To be born without being, to work without relying on it, to grow without being slaughtered is Xuande." (Chapter 10 of "Laozi") He also said: "The Tao follows nature."

The Taoist idea of ??governing by doing nothing can be said to be the political application of their metaphysics and inner sage. The two books "Laozi" and "Zhuangzi" talk about governance by doing nothing.

This is based on the fact that saints do things without doing anything and teach without saying anything. (Chapter 2 of "Zhezi")

If you do nothing, everything will be cured. (Chapter 3 of "Laozi")

The Tao always does nothing but does everything; if the princes and kings can guard it, all things will transform themselves. (Chapter 37 of "Laozi")

Therefore the sage said: 'I do nothing and the people transform themselves. ’ (Chapter 57 of "Laozi")

If a man is empty, quiet and tranquil, indifferent and inactive, the heaven and earth are peaceful and moral is supreme, so the emperors and saints are at rest. Rest means emptiness, emptiness means reality, and reality is ethical. If you are empty, you will be still. If you are still, you will move. If you move, you will gain. Being quiet means doing nothing, and doing nothing means that those who do things are responsible. ("Zhuangzi, The Way of Heaven")

The virtue of a husband and emperor is based on heaven and earth, morality is the main thing, and inaction is the norm. (Same as above)

But what exactly is "governing by doing nothing"?

Lao Tzu regarded "doing nothing" and "non-attachment" simultaneously. He said: "Those who do desire it, and those who hold on lose it. This is because the sage has no desire because he does nothing, and he has no loss because he has no hold." ("Laozi" Chapter 64) Inaction and non-attachment here refer to the practice of Taoism. It is a state of awareness in which a person is not attached or obsessed. The so-called "addiction" and "attachment" refer to addiction and attachment to unreal things, that is, not realizing the "Tao". Since everything in the empirical world is ever-changing, if we hold on to any event or object and think it is reality, we will not be able to grasp the true meaning of Tao. Because the world of experience is constantly changing. Although it is the operation of Tao, Tao itself is permanent and unchanging, independent and unchangeable. Tao itself embodies "inaction", and everything in it is in accordance with nature. Therefore, action and persistence not only fail to enable us to realize and embody the Tao, but instead lead us in the opposite direction.

In politics, what is called "inaction"? Due to the influence of Legalist thought, some people often interpret Taoism's political inaction as the "skill" of the monarch. This explanation is Think of inaction purely as a technique for a king to control his subordinates. The king does not show his likes and dislikes, making his subordinates incomprehensible to him, and therefore do not know how to cater to him. In this case, the king is of course in an advantageous position.

Although it cannot but be said that this kind of seed is hidden in Taoist thought, I think this is not the main meaning of Taoist Wuwei. If this is the main meaning of inaction, then the word "governing" in "administering by doing nothing" would hardly make sense. Rule by doing nothing does not mean that the king can fully control his subordinates. If it only refers to this point, it must emphasize that the king must have absolute power. However, this argument is naturally consistent with Taoist laissez-faire. conflicting. If Wuwei does not refer to the Legalist method of looking south to the king, then what exactly is it?

The political theory of Wuwei is to keep the rulers quiet, not to interfere with the people, and to let the people themselves Go get creative. Because of the power in their hands, it is often difficult for those in power not to use their power to interfere in the lives of the people. This interference prevents the people from doing what they like, thus hindering or even damaging the people's spontaneity and creativity. . The most famous era in Chinese history when "inaction" was used as a method of political governance was in the early Western Han Dynasty; Cao, Chen Ping and Chen Ping were the executors of this policy. Their stories can illustrate what the Taoist ideal of inaction is. What kind of politics.

In the first year of Xiaohui, in addition to the princes ministering to the country, Shen became the prime minister of Qi. Join them together and unite seventy cities. At the beginning of the world, when King Hui was rich in the Spring and Autumn Period, he summoned all the elders and gentlemen to ask why the people were gathered together. However, there are hundreds of Confucian scholars in the Qi Dynasty, and they say that everyone is different, based on the unknown. I heard that there was a man named Gai Gong in Jiaoxi who was good at managing Huang Laoyan, so I asked him to pay him a generous sum of money. After seeing Gai Gong, Gai Gong said that the rule of law is noble and peaceful and the people can be self-sufficient, so I can infer this specific statement. She then avoided the main hall and abandoned the palace. Huang Lao's skills were used in his governance, so in the ninth year of the Prime Minister's reign, the state of Qi was settled in peace, and he was known as the virtuous prime minister.

Shenziku is the official of Zhongdafu. Emperor Hui was surprised that the Prime Minister was not managing the affairs of the country, and thought, "Why do you have so little skin?" He said: "When the daughter returns, she tries her best to calmly ask her father: 'The Emperor Gao recently abandoned his ministers, and the emperor was rich in the Spring and Autumn Period. The king was the Prime Minister of the country, and he drank every day. "If you have nothing to ask for, why worry about the world?" However, I have no words to tell my daughter. "After washing and bathing in the cave, it was time for her to remonstrate with her. Shen replied angrily and said, "I am here to serve you, but what is going on in the world is not what you should say." When the emperor came to court, the emperor asked Shen to say, "Do you want to treat Hu Hu in the cave? It's my envoy to admonish you." On the day when he was exempted from the crown and thanked him: "Your Majesty is observing, who is Shengwu and Emperor Gao?" The previous day: "Lian Nai'an dared to look at the late emperor I" The previous day: "Your Majesty is observing who is Shengwu and Xiao Hexian?" The previous day: "It seems that you are not as good as you." . Shenri: "Your Majesty said it is true." Moreover, Emperor Gao and Xiao He established the world. Since the decrees are clear, your majesty bows his head, attends to his duties, and obeys without failing. Isn't it okay?" Emperor Hui said: "Good, the king is at rest!" ("Hanshu" Vol. Thirty-nine, "The Biography of Cao Shen")

The two stories of Cao Shen illustrate an important point in the politics of inaction. Wuwei does not mean that those who are politicians do nothing all day long; Adopt a non-intervention policy for the people and let the people freely use their abilities. But what exactly do politicians do in inaction politics? What the politicians are actually responsible for is formulating good laws and rules. Laws and rules are what everyone must abide by when doing their work. Cao Shen believes that the laws and policies formulated by Xiao He are already quite perfect, and he has no ability to modify them, so he can be happy with this. It is the famous "Xiao rules and Cao Sui" in history. From this point, it can be seen that the most fundamental essence of Wuwei politics is to give the people as much freedom as possible, and those with power should try not to interfere with the people. Human freedom is unlimited, so the formulation of good laws and rules has become the only job of politicians. The effect of this kind of politics is indeed very similar to the order created by modern Western liberalism; however, inaction. In the end, politics is just a method of governing people, which is completely different from the basic philosophical theory of liberalism based on the concept of human rights. In the theory of inaction politics, the most taboo person is one who is obsessed with everything. A person who knows everything clearly cannot let others develop. Therefore, after Zhou Yafu quelled the chaos of the Seven Kingdoms and became the prime minister, he did not use Zhao Yu, because although "Zhao Yu is the prime minister, everyone in the government calls him." "Integrity and Ping", "However, Yafu is not responsible for his duties, and he knows very well that he is harmless, but his writing is profound and he cannot live in a big mansion" ("Hanshu" Volume 19, (Zhao Yu Biography)).

When Zhou Yafu was a general and stationed in Xiliu, he was famous for his strict military discipline. Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty had to get off the bus according to military orders when he came to inspect the camp. However, after he became the prime minister, he did not need to be strict with people like Zhao Yu. This shows that Zhou Yafu learned that the army and the army are two different orders. The former is the command order mentioned above. The latter is a spontaneous order. If the rules used in the former are applied to the latter, the consequences will definitely be bad.

Secondly, the politics of inaction is a politics of hierarchical responsibility, in which everyone does their own thing; therefore, the most taboo thing about it is Zhuge Liang's style of doing everything personally. Chinese history has something to do with the concept of stratified responsibility. The story of Chen Ping and Bingji is the most popular. Shang Yi Mingxi, who is studying state affairs, went to court and asked Prime Minister Bo on the right: "How many prisons are there in one year in the world?" Bo Xie didn't know. Asked: "How much money does the money drum in the world make in one year?" Bo Youxie didn't know. I'm sweating all over my back, I feel so ashamed that I can't be right. I also asked Prime Minister Zuo Ping. Ping said: "(Each one) has a master." Shang said: "Who is the master?" Ping said: "Your Majesty will ask about the prisoner, Guiting Wei; Qian Hu, who is responsible for the history of Su Nei." Shang said: "Each one has his own master, and what is the master of the king?" Ping Xie said: "Master! Your Majesty doesn't know his subordinates, so he makes him the prime minister. The prime minister assists the emperor in regulating yin and yang, and follows the four seasons. All things are suitable, and the foreign princes are supported externally, and the people are closely connected internally, so that the ministers and officials can fulfill their duties. "It is said to be good. Bo was so ashamed that he came out and gave way to Ping Ri: "You don't teach me anything!" Ping smiled and said: "You are in your position, but you don't know what evil you can do? And your Majesty asked about the number of thieves in Chang'an, and do you want to deal with evil in the territory?" So the final lord knew that he could not reach Pingyuan. After a short period of time, Bo Xie was exempted from the prime ministership, while Ping Zhuan became the prime minister. "("Book of Han" Volume 40, "Chen Ping Biography")

What Chen Ping pointed out in this dialogue is another important point of the politics of inaction. There is a responsible person for every matter. Judgment is Tingwei is in charge, and the money hub is in charge of the internal history; while the prime minister is in charge of the emperor Sasuke's management of yin and yang, and the four seasons; the emperor himself really only needs to do the right thing. This is not the case with promising politics, the greater the power. In addition to what they should do, they also have to do what their subordinates should do. In this way, the order is destroyed. Wuwei does not mean that the politicians do nothing, but that everyone should do it. Being able to give full play to their abilities to do their own work can not only be used on the people, allowing them to give full play to themselves, but also on the rulers, making a bureaucracy itself a spontaneous one. Order. The politics of inaction is actually a politics with multiple decision-making centers. Therefore, Zhuangzi said: "Being quiet means doing nothing, and doing nothing means doing things." ("Zhuangzi·Tiandao")

Having discussed the meaning of "inaction", the next question is, in the theory of "governing by doing nothing", what can be regarded as the state of "governing"? What kind of political order does this theory want to establish? We can start from Let’s look at this Taoist political thought from both the theoretical and practical aspects. Let’s look at the theoretical aspect first:

It is based on the sage’s teaching of doing things without doing anything, and doing things without saying anything. If you do something but don't rely on it, you won't be able to live without success ("Laozi" Chapter 2)

The Tao is always done without doing anything; if the princes can guard it, all things will transform themselves ("Laozi" 37). Chapter)

Therefore the sage said: "I do nothing, and the people become themselves; I like to be quiet, and the people are upright; I do nothing, and the people become rich; I have no desires, and the people are simple." " (Chapter 57 of "Laozi")

Zhuangzi also has the following description of governance by doing nothing:

Yangzi lived in Cuiran day: "I dare to ask the Ming king about governance. . "Lao Dan said: "The rule of the Ming Dynasty is so great that it covers the whole world but does not seem to have its own merits. It lends money to all things and the people cannot rely on it. If there is something, it is not named to make things happy. It is unpredictable and wanders in nothingness." "("Zhuangzi. Chapter of Yingdiwang")

He who hears it is to forgive the world, but not to rule the world. Those who do it are afraid of the world's sexual abuse; those who forgive it are afraid of the world's sexual abuse. If you don't transfer your virtues, you can rule the world! In the past, when Yao ruled the world, he made the world happy and made people happy with his nature, which was unsatisfactory. It is not a virtue for a man to be tired and unhappy in his nature, and it is not a virtue to live long.

There is no such thing as happiness in the world. ; Great anger and evil, adjacent to Yin.

Yin and yang are close together, the four seasons are not coming, the harmony of cold and heat cannot be achieved, and it will hurt people's appearance! It makes people lose their position of joy and anger, living in an unstable place, not contented with their thoughts, and unable to follow the middle path, so the world begins to fight with birds of prey. , and then there was a trip to steal Zhi Zengshi. Therefore, if you raise the world to reward those who are good, it will not be enough, and if you raise the world to punish those who are evil, there will be no reward. Therefore, the world is too big to reward and punish. From the third generation onwards, those who have always been concerned about rewards and punishments have no time to care about their lives! ("Zhuangzi Zaiyou Pian")

From these quotations, we can see what kind of realm the so-called governance in the theory of "governing by doing nothing" is. In Chapter 57 of "Laozi", "self-transformation", "self-rectification", "self-enrichment", "self-simplicity", as well as Zhuangzi's "self-transformation and borrowing of all things, the people cannot rely on them", "those from the third generation or below, The Hungarians are given rewards and punishments, so how can they care about their lives?" All of them show the Taoist state of governance. Self-improvement, self-rectification, self-enrichment and self-simplicity are all worlds in which individuals can give full play to their talents. Because political leaders do nothing and do not interfere, the people can be self-centered, self-righteous, self-rich and self-simple. This achievement is not achieved by the orders of the rulers, but by the people themselves through their understanding of themselves and the objective environment. Knowledge can only be achieved by applying it. Therefore, both Lao and Zhuang have repeatedly emphasized that "you are born without having something, and you do it without relying on it." The last sentence of "Zhuangzi Zaiyou Pian" quoted above clearly shows that the so-called governance of Taoism is to enable people to develop according to their nature. The consequences of any intervention are to destroy this possibility. This idea is very consistent with Mill's idea in "On Liberty". Mill believes that freedom is an indispensable condition for discovering truth and self-development. Various cultural achievements of human beings must rely on freedom to fully develop. It is this kind of people that Lao and Zhuang's self-reflection refers to. the full development of creativity. In the theory of inaction politics, "doing nothing without doing anything" is an extremely important concept. Only by doing nothing at the top can the effect of doing nothing can be achieved. Therefore, the ultimate goal of inaction politics is to do everything. Doing nothing is "giving birth to all things".

As for the inaction politics in the early Han Dynasty, the history books have this record:

When Xiao Hui Empress Lu, the people were newly free of poisonous wormwood, and people wanted to take care of the young, and Xiao Cao was the best. , fill it with inaction, follow the desires of the people without disturbing them, nourish them with food and clothing, and use them sparingly for punishment. When Xiaowen came to the throne, he worked diligently and silently to encourage farmers and mulberry trees to reduce rents and taxes. ("Criminal Law Table" in Volume 12 of "Book of Han")

The most important application scope of the inaction politics in the early Han Dynasty was in economic policy. The inaction economic policy was the modern laissez-faire policy. The effect of implementing this policy made the situation of extreme poverty in the early Han Dynasty turn into very rich. In the early years of the Han Dynasty, due to years of war and the Qin Dynasty's extortionate expropriations, the people and politics were in dire straits.

The Han Dynasty prospered and took over the Qin Dynasty. The princes came together, the people lost their jobs, and there was a great famine. A few meters and five thousand stones, people cannibalized each other, and more than half of them died. ...The world has been established, and the support of the people has been reduced. Since the emperor cannot have a fine horse, the generals or prime ministers may ride in ox-carts. ("Hanshu Shihuo Zhi" (Part 1))

Even the emperor could not have a horse of the same color to pull his cart, which shows how poor the society was.

In this situation of extreme poverty, several emperors in the early Han Dynasty implemented a non-intervention policy of light corvee and low taxation, reducing taxes as much as possible so that the people could use their own strength to engage in production work. What are the results of implementing this policy? Sima Qian gave this description in the era of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty:

In the last few years since he ascended the throne, during the more than seventy years since the rise of the Han Dynasty, the country has suffered from floods and droughts. The people are well-fed and their families are full, but the government treasury is full of goods and wealth, and the money of the capital is accumulated to tens of thousands, which is rotten and cannot be shuttled. As the millet in Taicang grows old, it becomes full of dew and accumulates outside, until it becomes rotten and inedible. ...Those who guard the time of death eat the flesh of the beam, ... Therefore, everyone loves himself and breaks the law again. He should first do righteousness and then pay attention to shame.

This is the result of the implementation of inaction politics, which is unusual in this golden age in Chinese history.

What is the rationale for inaction politics? Why is the order established based on inaction governance ideal? As mentioned earlier, inaction governance is similar in effect to spontaneous order, that is to say , the orders established according to these two theories are very similar. They are both a free, laissez-faire rather than a command order.

However, the basic concepts and positions of these two theories are different. The most basic problem of liberalism is Kant's proposition that "man is an end, not a means." The theory of governance by doing nothing is not based on this proposition. What is its basis?