Pronunciation photos of 48 international phonetic symbols

Pronunciation chart, mouth shape and pronunciation method of forty-eight phonemes

Pronunciation chart, mouth shape and pronunciation method of forty-eight phonemes

1.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

/i/ Traditional pronunciation symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet

This sound is a pre-vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letter I or Y in the stressed closed tone. It's a short vowel, so it should be short and light. The key points of pronunciation are: the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, the tongue protrudes, the lingual side touches the upper teeth, and the mouth shape is flat.

2./i/ American pronunciation symbols

/i:/ British pronunciation symbol

/i:/ Traditional International Phonetic Alphabet

Provowel is the pronunciation of the letters ea, ee, ie or ei in a word. This sound is a long vowel, so be sure to pronounce it enough. The key points of pronunciation are that the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, the front tongue is raised as high as possible, the tongue position is higher than /i/: and the mouth shape is flat.

3.// American pronunciation symbols

/e/ British pronunciation symbols

/e/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a pre-vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letter e or ea in the word. This is a short vowel. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, the front of the tongue is slightly raised, and the tongue position ratio /i:/ is low; Lip is medium, and the opening ratio is /i:/.

4.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a preposition, which is the pronunciation of the letter A in the stressed closed syllable. //is a short vowel. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth; The front of the tongue is slightly tilted, and the tongue position ratio is lower than/e/; With flat lips.

5.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a post vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letter combination ar and the pronunciation of the first letters A such as ss, st and th. //is a long vowel. When pronouncing, the mouth is wide open, the tongue body is pressed down and then retracted, the back tongue is slightly lifted, and the tip of the tongue does not touch the lower teeth. Lips are slightly rounded.

6.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a short vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letter O in stressed closed syllable words. When pronouncing, open your mouth, lower your tongue as far as possible, and then retract, and your lips are slightly rounded.

7.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a post vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letters o, or, al, oar, our or oor in the word. This is a long vowel. When pronouncing, the back of the tongue is raised higher than//that is, American//American//,and the lips are round and small, protruding forward.

8.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

/u/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

Sound is a postposition element, which is the pronunciation of English letters U, oo or ou in words. /u/ is a short vowel. When pronouncing, the back of the tongue is raised, contracted and the tip of the tongue leaves the lower teeth. Lips are rounded and slightly prominent.

9.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Traditional pronunciation symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet

This sound is a post vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letter oo or ou in the word. This is a long vowel. When pronouncing, raise the back of the tongue as much as possible, and the tongue position ratio is higher than /u/, that is, American pronunciation//British pronunciation//. Lips are round and protruding. The lip ratio is slightly less than/u///.

10.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a post vowel, which is the pronunciation of the letters O and U in the word. //is a short vowel. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue and both sides of the tip of the tongue lightly touch the lower teeth, the front part of the back of the tongue is slightly raised, the lip shape is slightly flat, and the opening is larger, similar to//.

1 1.// American phonetic symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

Pronunciation is a middle vowel, which is the pronunciation of letter combinations er, ir, or, ur in words. //is a long vowel. When pronouncing//,the middle of the tongue is slightly higher. Flat lips.

12.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

Phonetic sound is a middle vowel, which is the pronunciation of letters A, E, O, U, er, or and ur in words. //is to read short vowels. When pronouncing, the tongue is flat, the middle part of the tongue is slightly raised, and the lips are flat.

13.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

/ei/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letter A in stressed open syllable words. Play the /e/ tone first, and then slide to the /i/ tone. Lips slightly flat, mouth from half-open to closed.

14.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letters O, oa and oe in words. It slides from vowel//to back vowel /u/, that is, American and British pronunciation//. The tongue position is from half low to high, and the mouth shape is from half open to small. Pay attention to the sound.

15.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

/ai/ Traditional International Phonetic Alphabet

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letter I or Y in a word. /ai/ stands for diphthongs. Play the /a/ tone first, and then slide to the /i/ tone. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth. The key to pronounce this sound is to pronounce the /a/ sound completely, and pay attention to the sliding from opening to closing.

16.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

/au/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letters ou and ow in words. /au/ or//from /a/ to/u//。 The tongue position is from low to high, and the mouth shape is from big to small. Pay attention to the sound.

17.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

/i/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of letters oy and oi in words. Pronunciation lips from round to flat, mouth from open to closed. The key to pronounce this sound well is to pronounce the last vowel/a///and then slide to /i/.

18.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation

/i/ Pronunciation of traditional international phonetic symbols

The sound is diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letters ear, ere and eer in the word. The focus of pronunciation is from /i/ sound to //sound, and American sounds to /r/ sound. The front /i/ is clearly pronounced, and the back//or /r/ is weak. Lips are always half open. This sound must be pronounced loud enough.

19.// American pronunciation symbol

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, that is, the pronunciation of the letters are, air and ear in the word. Its pronunciation method is from //e/ sound to//sound. When the hair is twisted, the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, the front tongue is slightly raised, and the lips are half open. The//in this sound is similar to the /e/ sound, and the//sound is lighter.

20.// American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

/u/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

This sound is a diphthongs, which is the pronunciation of the letters our, oor and ure in the word. Pronunciation, lips from round to half-open. The key to pronounce this sound well is to pronounce the complete /u// sound first, and then slide to//sound.

Consonant part

2 1-22

/p/ /b/ American pronunciation symbols

/p/ /b/ British pronunciation symbols

/p/ /b/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/p/ is the pronunciation of p, /b/ is the pronunciation of b, and the lips explode with consonants. When you pronounce it, your lips are closed and you hold your breath. Then the ash suddenly separates and the air rushes out of your mouth, making a thumping sound. /p/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; /b/ is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

23-24

/t/ /d/ American phonetic symbols

/t/ /d/ British pronunciation symbols

/t/ /d/ Phonetic symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/t/ is the pronunciation of t, /d/ is the pronunciation of d. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue touches the gums, holding your breath, and then suddenly separating, so that the airflow rushes out of the mouth and emits sonic boom. /t/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; /d/ is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

23-24

/t/ /d/ American phonetic symbols

/t/ /d/ British pronunciation symbols

/t/ /d/ Phonetic symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/t/ is the pronunciation of T, /d/ is the pronunciation of D. When the consonant is pronounced by tongue-tooth explosion, the tip of the tongue touches the gum, holds its breath, and then suddenly separates, so that the airflow rushes out of the mouth and emits sonic boom. /t/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; /d/ is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

25-26

/k/ /g/ American phonetic symbols

/k/ // British phonetic symbols

/k/ // Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/k/ is the pronunciation of the letters k and c,//is the pronunciation of the letter g. The explosive consonant of the soft palate behind the tongue. When pronouncing, the back of the tongue sticks out and clings to the soft palate, holding your breath, and then suddenly separates, and the airflow is sent out of the mouth, forming a sonic boom. /k/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; //is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

27-28

/f/ /v/ American phonetic symbols

/f/ /v/ British phonetic symbols

/f/ /v/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/f/ is the pronunciation of f and ph, and /v/ is the pronunciation of v. When pronouncing, the lower lip touches the upper teeth, and the airflow passes between the lips and teeth, forming a fricative sound. /f/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; /v/ is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

29-30

////American phonetic symbols

////British phonetic symbols

////Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

////is the pronunciation of th. When the tongue-tooth friction consonant is pronounced, the tip of the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth, and the airflow between the tongue and teeth forms a fricative sound. //is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; //is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

3 1-32

/s/ /z/ American pronunciation symbols

/s/ /z/ British phonetic alphabet

/s/ /z/ traditional international phonetic symbols

/s//z/ is the pronunciation of S, and /z/ is the pronunciation of Z. When the tongue-tooth friction consonant is pronounced, the tip of the tongue is close to the gingiva, and the airflow is emitted from between the gums of the tip of the tongue, forming a fricative sound. /s/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; /z/ is voiced and vocal cords vibrate.

Pronunciation chart, mouth shape and pronunciation method of forty-eight phonemes

33-34

/∫//American Phonetic Alphabet

/∫//British Phonetic Alphabet

/∫//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/∫/is the pronunciation of sh,//is the pronunciation of S. The friction consonant behind the lingual gum. Pronunciation, the tip of the tongue is close to the back of the gum, the tongue body is raised close to the upper jaw, and the lips are slightly round and protruding. When the airflow passes by, it makes a rubbing sound. /∫/is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; //is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

35

/h/ American pronunciation symbols

/h/ British pronunciation symbols

/h/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/h/ is the pronunciation of the letter H. When the glottic friction consonant is pronounced, the airflow is sent out of the mouth and slightly rubbed when passing through the glottis; The shape of the mouth changes with the vowels behind it. /h/ is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate.

36

/m/ American phonetic symbols

/m/ British phonetic symbols

/m/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/m/ is the pronunciation of the nasal consonant of m. Bilabial. When pronouncing, the soft palate droops, the lips are closed, and the airflow is sent out from the nasal cavity.

37

/n/ American pronunciation

/n/ British pronunciation

/n/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/n/ is the pronunciation of the tip of the tongue, gums and nasal consonants. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue touches the gums, the soft jaw droops, and the airflow is sent out from the nasal cavity.

38

//American pronunciation symbols

//British pronunciation symbols

//Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

//is the pronunciation of ng. Retrolingual soft palate nasal consonants. When pronouncing, the soft palate droops, blocking the oral passage, and the airflow is sent out from the nasal cavity. Vocal cord vibration.

39

/w/ American pronunciation symbols

/w/ British pronunciation symbols

/w/ Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

/w/ is the pronunciation of the semi-vowel of the soft palate behind the tongue. When pronouncing, the back of the tongue is raised to the soft palate and the tongue position is high. Lips contract and protrude forward, and vocal cords vibrate. Pronunciation is short, and immediately slide to the vowels behind.

40

/l/ American phonetic symbols

/l/ British pronunciation symbols

/l/ Traditional International Phonetic Alphabet

/l/ is the pronunciation of L. Tongue and gingival consonants. When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue and the tip of the tongue cling to the upper gum, the tongue is lifted forward to the hard palate, and the airflow is sent out from the side of the tongue. When this sound is the ending sound, press the tongue end to the upper gum, that is, the lower limit of the front part of the tongue, and lift the back part of the tongue to form a concave surface. Voiced consonants, vocal cord vibration.

4 1

/r/ American phonetic symbols

/r/ British phonetic symbols

/r/ traditional international phonetic symbols

/r/ is the pronunciation of r, the friction consonant of the tip of the tongue and gum (back). When pronouncing, the tip of the tongue rolls up, close to the back of the upper gum. There is slight disorder on both sides of the tongue. Lips protrude slightly. The airflow creates a slight friction between the tip of the tongue and the gums. Voiced consonants, vocal cord vibration.

Forty two.

/y/ American pronunciation symbol

/j/ British pronunciation symbols

/j/ The pronunciation symbol of traditional international phonetic symbols, that is, the pronunciation of Mandarin Phonetic Alphabet Y at the beginning of the word, is a semi-vowel with a hard jaw in front of the tongue. When pronouncing, the front of the tongue should be lifted to the hard palate as much as possible, with the tongue in a higher position and the lips stretched flat. It's voiced consonants, vocal cord vibration.

43-44

////American phonetic symbols

////British phonetic symbols

////Pronunciation symbols of traditional international phonetic symbols

//is the pronunciation of ch,//is the pronunciation of dge. Tongue and gum bruise consonant. When pronouncing, the tongue body is raised, the tip of the tongue is close to the back of the gum, and the airflow makes a fricative sound. //is an unvoiced consonant, and the vocal cords do not vibrate; //is a voiced consonant, and the vocal cords vibrate.

45-46

/ts/ /dz/ The traditional pronunciation symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet are not included in the American and British pronunciations in the new textbook. Fricative sounds /ts/ and /dz/ are the pronunciation of the letter combinations ts and ds, respectively. Tongue and gum bruise consonant. The tip of the tongue first sticks to the gum, blocking the airflow, and then drops slightly, and the airflow is sent out of the mouth. /ts/ is a voiced consonant and /dz/ is a voiced consonant.

47-48

/tr/ /dr/ IPA traditional pronunciation symbol. American and British pronunciations are not included in the new textbook. /tr/ and /dr/ are the pronunciations of tr and dr respectively. The fricative consonant behind the gum. The pronunciation of the tongue is similar to /r/, and the tip of the tongue is attached to the back of the gum, and the short /t/ is issued immediately after the airflow breaks through the obstacle. /tr/ is a voiced consonant, /dr/ is a voiced consonant.

Previous articles: 48 international phonetic symbols, pronunciation tables and photos (No.65438 +0-32)

First, the pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables

Vowel pronunciation example

A syllable [ei] at the beginning is called flat Jane baby cake.

In the closed syllable [? ] Bao Dad hat figure black back

On the first syllable [I:] they are from China.

In the closed syllable [e] bed let pen desk yes egg.

I'm at the beginning of the syllable [ai]. Bike flies, driving time, beautiful kites.

In the closed syllables, fish drink and swim in milk.

In the first syllable [ou], o thinks close go hoe home no

In the closed syllable [C] clock not box shop sock

U at the beginning of the syllable [ju:] Students excuse their duties on Tuesday.

Jump for lunch in the closed syllable [∧] bus cup.

In the initial syllable, the vowel letter u is pronounced as [u:] after the consonant letter j l r s, for example, June blue ruler super.

Second, the special pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables

Vowel pronunciation example

A After [w] [C], it depends on the quality of washing.

Ask grap glass quick father after the plant diagram

[ai] sub-optical height is found before -nd -ld and gh [ai]

Oh, before the oldest postcards.

Oh, before I came, monkeys loved their mothers.

Pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables

Vowel pronunciation example

Breakfast for another woman in China.

Cabbage in Juzi Tongzhi Village

Hundreds of students are open on weekends.

Chicken pocket begins with children

I/Holiday Beautiful Family Animals

[ai] exercise satellite

Someone is welcome tonight.

[EU] is also a zero photo

U [E] autumn is difficult

[ju] the public congratulates January

If a in the verb is in the position of opening syllable, a is pronounced as [ei], such as operate.

When u is in the opening syllable position, after the consonant j l r s, the pronunciation is [u(:)], for example, July affects February.

In unstressed syllables, the vowel letter a e i in many words can be pronounced as [e] or [E].

4. Pronunciation of -r syllable vowels in stressed syllables

Vowel pronunciation example

After Arar came [w] [α:] the dark sharpener in the car farm

[C] Towards a warmer season

Oror is 40 mornings behind [w] [C:].

[E] writers are even worse

Thursday birds, of course.

When the consonant R is written in pairs, the vowels in front of it cannot form -r syllables with R, but are pronounced according to the spelling rules of stressed closed syllables. For example, carrying sorry for being in a hurry

-r syllables are usually pronounced with [E] in unstressed syllables, for example, teacher Marty Forget Saturday of Dollar.

Pronunciation of vowel group of -re syllable in verb (abbreviation of verb)

Vowel pronunciation example

Do you dare to worry

Just here.

Fire rental line

Ore [C:] scored more points before.

Pure treatment

Are ere ire ore rarely appears in unstressed syllables, and ure sounds [E] in unstressed syllables, such as picture pleasure.

When accented vowels are added with Rr and unstressed vowels, the accented vowels should be spelled according to the spelling rules of -re syllables, and the letter Rr should be pronounced with [r]. Example: zero parents' stories in the process of motivation

Some commonly used words and disyllabic words often appear the phenomenon of long sound shortening. For example, orange is very American

Pronunciation of vowel groups in stressed syllables of intransitive verbs

Vowel pronunciation example

Ai/ay [ei] I'm afraid of rain and wait for another day to play.

Air [εE] air chair pair repair

Small ball talk wall

[C:l] Salt is always the same.

[α:] Semi-calm

Au/aw[C] autumn daughter draw lots.

Ask for easy and cheap advice

[e] thick bread sweater weather

[ei] Have a good rest

Heard dear in recent Qing dynasty.

[εE] Xiong Li wears an oath

[E] earth early learning

Ee [i:] Jeep Wednesday.

Xianfeng Lu beer

They have eight neighbors.

[i:] any key

EU /ew follows j. l. r. s [ju:] A few new newspapers.

[u] flying jewelry

[i:] fragment field received after ie/ei[s]

Oa [ou] coat Qiongzhou target

Oar/oor door floor

Boys' toilet

Oo[u] broom food dental school

The book looks well cooked.

Countdown of greenhouse

[ou] I know that although the line is cast,

[∧] A young country

[u:] Zuni soup

Our course, your four.

Our time is ours.

[E] journey

Ui is the driving force behind j l r s [ju:i] fluid suicide tuition.

[u] fruit juice set

Pronunciation of vowels and phrases in unstressed syllables

Pronunciation examples of vowel groups or word groups

Alas, alas, alas, foreign monkeys on Sunday.

Yellow sparrow tomorrow

Vowel groups are pronounced as [E] or [e] in unstressed syllables. For example, the neighboring seriously famous coffee.

Impression nation

-after sion, vowel [VN] vision determines occupation

Options after s [tFEn] question suggestion

listen

-Whistle

-Of course, pleasant measures

-true[tFE] picture culture

Eight. Pronunciation of Meta-words in compound unstressed syllables

The second part of the compound word is not marked with stress symbols, but the vowels or vowel groups in it are still spelled according to the spelling rules of stressed syllables. For example: daily [ei] handbags [? Blackboard [C:]

With the development of language, some words have lost their independent meaning and merged into one word. The unstressed part should be pronounced according to the pronunciation law of unstressed syllables. For example: grandchildren+Sun [ei] Day > Sunday Saint+Sun [ei] Day > Holidays and holidays+Fasting [α:] Fasting > Breakfast Cup+Board [c:] > Cabinet [e] Cabinet.

Nine, the pronunciation of auxiliary word groups

Pronunciation examples of auxiliary phrases

Bicycle bus package

[/] Bomb Tomb

Cc before e or before i/y [k] cake picture jacket music

[s] Face decides the movie.

A wealthy female teacher

[k] school headache chemistry

[F] machine

-ck [k] The cock's pocket is black.

Doctor's Bread Hand Day

Bridge refrigerator

Drinks for children drivers

Wusi breakfast

Gg comes before e i/y [] Baggarden Go.

Orange large German

Cough is enough

[/] Light daughters are tall.

Gu-Gu [] guessing dialogue in a soft voice

[w] the pain of language

A hot-headed domestic helper

[/] Hours of honesty

Jeep can jokes join July

K [k] kind bicycle skates manufacturing week

Kn- [n] knife knows to knock.

L [l] Life Milk School is high

Monkeys come in autumn.

-mn [m] autumn column solemn

Nn does not emit ten notes before [k] [g] [n].

[N] Thanks, Uncle. Hungry.

Young mistakes

P [p] paper airplane pig boat pen

Elephant photo phone

Iraq

The quality of qu- [kw] is equivalent.

Red rubber ruler

S comes before the prefix or voiced consonant in vowels, or [s] comes before voiced consonants.

[z] Music husband

brilliant/bright red

Muscle science

Sh [F] she fish washing shirt

Generally speaking, ten letters meet before the weak letter ia ie io.

A patient country

Tch [tF] watch

Th is usually the method of adding the suffix -the-the[θ]thin thisty to the prepositional conjunctions of article pronouns.

[Analysis] These comparisons

Clothes suitable for different weather

Tr- [tr] tree train country truck

Love to leave very much

W [w] Zhou win wake sweet waiting

[/] Answer 2

Wh-wh-wh- before the letter when white why.

[h] Whose whole?

X is in front of the stressed vowel [ks] box.

Examples do exist.

write

Y- [j] Yes, the yellow boy in the yard.

Z [z] jigsaw puzzle zero zoo

When you have nothing, that's when you start to gain something.

● Childhood ignorance is lovely, and juvenile ignorance is ridiculous; The ignorance of youth is pitiful; Ignorance in middle age is sad, and ignorance in old age is sad.

● I am afraid that my father is filial and my wife is love.

● There are no unqualified students, only unqualified parents.

● The earth is moving, and a person will not be in an unlucky position forever.

We can avoid everyone, but we can't avoid a fly. What makes us unhappy in life is often trivial things.

● There is a kind of person who only does two things: you succeed and he is jealous of you; You failed and he laughed at you.

A slip of the tongue is accidentally telling the truth.

● Love is missing your own heart, love is devouring your own heart, and marriage is tying your own heart.

● The more proud people are, the more they love to hide. The more painful things are, the more they love to make a mountain out of a molehill.

● Learn more, be less proud, take advantage of opportunities and get rid of laziness.

● Managing your strengths well can add value to your life; Managing your shortcomings will devalue your life.

● It is simple to complicate things, but complicated to simplify things.

People have two eyes, both of which are parallel, so we should look at people equally; People's ears are two-sided, so don't listen to one side of the story; Although people have only one heart, they have left and right atria, so they should not only think for themselves, but also for others.