Find a brief introduction to Newton ~!

Isacc Newton (1642-1727) was an English mathematician, astronomer and physicist.

Born on December 25th, 1642 to a farmer's family in Woolsop, a remote village in Lincolnshire, northern England, Newton's father died two months before his birth. His father's name is Isaac, but his mother still calls his son Isaac. Newton was only 3 pounds when he was born. The midwife didn't even expect him to survive, let alone live to the age of 85, and he is an outstanding scientist in the world.

When Newton was two years old, his mother remarried to a priest named Barton, and Newton was raised by his grandmother. At school age, Newton was sent to a public school, entered a middle school at the age of 12, and lodged in a drugstore. At school, his academic performance was not outstanding at first. He meditates and likes to make small toys by hand. For example, when I was in primary school, I made a surprisingly exquisite small waterwheel, and when I was in middle school, I made a small water clock. At dawn, water will automatically drip on his face and urge him to get up. Later, Barton died, and his mother brought two younger sisters and a younger brother home. Mother wanted Newton to graze and farm, and Newton dropped out of school at the age of 14.

Newton was full of ideals. Although he stopped studying at home, he was preoccupied with various learning problems. He carved a sun clock on his own stone wall, racing against time to study. His mother asked him to graze. He led the horse up the mountain, thinking about the sun in the sky while walking, and wanted to ride a horse when he reached the top of the mountain, but the horse ran away, leaving only a reins in his hand. Tell him to shepherd the sheep, and he reads alone under the tree, so that the sheep get separated and the crops collapse. My uncle asked the servant to accompany him to the market to familiarize himself with the business of trading, but Newton begged the servant to go out alone and read books behind the trees. Once, he measured the wind speed in a storm and was soaked to the skin. Mother was so shocked that she was afraid that he would go crazy that she had to send him back to middle school. Newton studied like crazy and made many jokes all his life. Once, he cooked eggs while reading. When he opened the pot and wanted to eat eggs, there was actually a pocket watch in it. On another occasion, he invited a friend to dinner, and the food was already on the table. But Newton suddenly thought of a problem and went into the inner room alone, and it didn't come out for a long time. My friend was impatient with waiting, so he ate the chicken himself, leaving the bones on the plate without saying goodbye. After a while, Newton came out, saw the bones on the plate and said to himself, "I thought I didn't eat!" I have already eaten it. " Legend has it that Newton forced himself to have a rest in a quiet hotel near Cambridge University one day after the publication of his important book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, but he couldn't calm down. He saw the beautiful color of the soap bubble film in somebody else's washbasin in the sun, and wondered what kind of optical truth it was here. So he blew soap bubbles with straw and blew them solemnly. The shopkeeper looked at it and felt sorry for him: "A decent gentleman who is almost 5 years old is so crazy that he blows soap bubbles all day. "

In p>1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge University. Professor Barrow of the college found Newton to be a talented person and recommended him as a graduate student. In 1665, Newton stayed in the university research room after graduation. In June of this year, when the plague was prevalent and the school closed, Newton had to return to his hometown. During this period, he concentrated his main energy on scientific research. He systematically sorted out the lessons he studied in the university, devoted himself to studying the predecessors' scientists and main works such as Kepler, Descartes, Archimedes and Galileo, and conducted many scientific experiments.

During the two years when Newton stayed away from the epidemic in his hometown, he considered almost all aspects of his life. In particular, several major contributions in his life, such as the law of universal gravitation, classical mechanics, flow mathematics (calculus) and optics, basically sprouted from 1665 to 1666. After the plague, in March 1667, Newton returned to the university as a graduate student. In 1668, he got a master's degree. In 1669, upon the recommendation of Professor Barrow, Newton became a professor of mathematics at the age of 27. He held this position for 26 years.

Newton is not good at teaching, and he is not very popular with students in teaching, but he is far superior to others in solving difficult problems.

Newton's lofty position in the history of science is universally acknowledged. Engels once pointed out: "Newton founded scientific astronomy because he discovered the law of universal gravitation, scientific optics because he decomposed light, scientific mathematics because he established binomial theorem and infinite theory, and scientific mechanics because he knew the nature of force." Indeed, Newton made a fundamental contribution in the field of natural science.

Newton's discovery of the law of universal gravitation is his most brilliant achievement in natural science. At the same time, some other scientists, such as Ryan, Harley and Hooke, were exploring the mysteries of celestial motion. In 1679, Hooke, director of the Royal Society, realized the gravity of inverse square law, but he couldn't prove it. Because he lacks Newton's mathematical ability, and he has no equal area law that can bend Kepler. Hook also wrote to Newton to inquire about Newton's progress in studying gravity. Newton didn't give him a satisfactory answer. In fact, Newton didn't understand the problem of gravity at this time. First, he tried to compare the centripetal acceleration of the moon's orbital motion with the gravitational acceleration of objects on the ground according to the inverse square relation, but the known radius of the earth value at that time was inaccurate and the calculation error was large. Secondly, Newton has not proved accurately that when calculating the distance, the mass of the moon and the earth can be concentrated in their respective spherical centers. This problem was not solved until Newton invented flow calculus. In 1684, Ryan, Harley and Hooke proposed to promote the study of this problem, that is, to get the result of elliptical orbit from the inverse square relationship of gravity between celestial bodies. In August of the same year, Harley made a special trip to Cambridge University to visit Newton and found that Newton had solved this problem. Newton failed to type the manuscript for a while and promised to write another one and send it to him. In November of the same year, Newton sent the recalculated manuscript paper together with relevant materials to Harley. Harley was extremely excited and excited to read Newton's calculation papers and rushed to Cambridge University to try to persuade Newton to publish them. Newton first wrote a paper on sports, which caused great repercussions in the Royal Society. Later, under Harley's enthusiastic persuasion, Newton completed the first draft of his masterpiece Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in the spring of 1685. Harley still rushed to mediate and contact publication, but the Royal Society argued that there was insufficient funds and suspended publication. At this time, the enthusiastic Harley generously funded all the publishing expenses, which enabled this epoch-making masterpiece to be published in 1687. Newton excitedly said to Harley, "Harley! You put a lot of effort into the publication of this book! Without your efforts, there might not be this book. Fortunately, I didn't bring you any trouble, so I'm relieved. "

the trouble happened after all. Earlier, Hooke, who insisted on wave theory, and Newton, who insisted on particle theory, had an unpleasant argument in order to explain the nature of light. This time, there was another unpleasant argument about who discovered gravity first. In the end, Newton made a concession and explained the part that Hooke had studied, which was attributed to him.

The book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy is divided into two parts. The first part is an introduction, including definitions, notes and basic theorems or laws of motion. The second part is the application of these basic laws. * * * is divided into three parts.

Although the introduction is short, its content is extremely important. Some important concepts, such as the quantity of matter, the quantity of motion, the inherent force (inertia) of matter, external force, centripetal force, Newton's absolute time, absolute space and absolute motion, are defined or explained. The basic theorem or law of motion mainly describes three basic laws of mechanical motion, and then gives six inferences, including the synthesis and decomposition of force, the superposition principle of motion and the law of conservation of momentum, the relativity principle of classical mechanics and the virtual displacement principle. In the second part, the first part entitled "Motion of an object" discusses gravity, and the second part entitled "Motion of an object (in a medium)" proves that Descartes' vortex model cannot explain the observed planetary motion, and also discusses some theorems and speculations about the properties of fluids. The third part explains the motion of planets and gravitational phenomena such as tides. At the beginning of this series, the "reasoning law in philosophy" is also expounded.

The publication of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy marks the establishment of a classical mechanical system. Simply speaking, the so-called classical mechanical system is based on four absolute concepts: space, time, mass and force, with three basic laws as the core, the law of universal gravitation as its highest synthesis, and calculus is used to describe the causal law of object motion. This is a scientific system with strict structure and logic based on experiments and observations. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy is the concentrated expression of this system.

It should be pointed out that the research and discovery of the three basic laws of motion, after a long period of exploration by many scientists and thinkers, clearly shows the inheritance of knowledge development. For example, the law of inertia was first put forward by Galileo and later perfected by Descartes, and the laws of action and reaction were discovered and verified by Hollis, Ryan and Huygens. The second law of motion was discovered by Newton in 1684. These three laws have a process from being discovered individually in isolation to becoming "basic" laws as a whole. Newton's manuscript in October 1684 also put forward the basic six laws of motion. When the first draft of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy was completed in 1685, the "basic six laws" were changed to "basic three laws" and the rest of the laws were taken as inferences of the three laws. Therefore, taking the three laws of motion as a whole and recognizing them as the basic laws of dynamics and one of the cornerstones of classical mechanics, this achievement should be attributed to Newton.

Newton's establishment of the basic three laws and his discovery of the law of universal gravitation promote and complement each other. Newton could only establish the law of universal gravitation after he realized the relationship between the change of motion and force. At the same time, in the solar system, strictly speaking, the factors of the interaction between two celestial bodies should be considered comprehensively. Therefore, the third law has become an important premise of the law of universal gravitation. Moreover, as pointed out earlier. Calculus can also be said to be founded for the need of establishing the law of universal gravitation. Thus, it can be said that Newton made a comprehensive consideration and completed several major achievements, such as the three laws of motion, the law of universal gravitation and calculus, which are the main cornerstones of classical mechanics.

Newton's achievements in optics are also extremely great. As early as 1664, when Newton was a student, he made observations about the corona. In 1666, Newton hit a triangular glass prism and used it to test the decomposition of white light into colored light. Before Newton, some people used prisms to study the refraction of light. But it is believed that the prism produces color, not just separating the existing colors.

Newton took an interest in improving the refracting telescope while studying the phenomenon of prism refraction. During the research, spherical aberration and chromatic aberration were found. When Lucas, a contemporary, experimented with different kinds of glass prisms used by Newton, the length and width of the spectrum obtained were quite different from Newton's experimental results. Because Newton happened to use a glass prism and water with equal dispersion rate at that time, he repeated many measurements, believing that he was not mistaken, and did not consider why people would get different results from himself. It is precisely because he did not adopt the usual cautious attitude at this point that he missed an important discovery-according to the characteristics of different substances with different dispersion rates, achromatic lenses can be made.

Newton did not make any achievements in improving the refracting telescope, but he successfully developed the reflecting telescope and became one of the inventors in reflecting telescope. Earlier, the Romans Zuji, French Merson and Scottish grigori all designed reflecting telescope, but none of them succeeded. Newton was the first person to make reflecting telescope. In 1668, the first reflecting telescope he built was six inches long and one inch in diameter, magnified 3 to 4 times. In 1672, he gave the Royal Society a larger reflecting telescope with the inscription: Invented by Isaac Newton and made by himself in 1671. In this year, Newton was elected as a member of the Royal Society. He submitted a paper "A New Theory of the Color of Light" to the Society, which proposed the particle nature of light. This was Newton's first paper. Unexpectedly, his argument clashed with Hooke's wave theory, one of the founders of the Royal Society and a great scientist, which caused a great debate (this theory lasted for nearly 3 years after the war, and it was not until the beginning of the 2th century that it came to an end with the conclusion of wave-particle duality of light). Newton learned the controversial lesson of that paper from the negative side. In his letter to his friend, he said, "? I lost a quiet and meaningful happy life, and was upset by this boring quarrel. This is really boring. I regret more and more that I shouldn't have published that paper rashly. "From then on, Newton was no longer enthusiastic about the publication of his own works. He wrote his own research results as a manuscript and locked it in a box, which was a complete task. As I said before, without Harley's active encouragement, even a book like Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy might not be published later.

Newton studied optics in many aspects. In addition to the refraction, aberration and chromatic aberration of light, Newton's ring was discovered, the diffraction phenomenon of light and the vibration theory of light were described, and the "burst interval" of light was put forward. This is similar to the wavelength in the later wave theory. Some people even say that Newton was actually the first physicist to measure the wavelength of light (although he insisted on the particle theory of light). Newton has made such great achievements in optics that some people say that he can be called a great scientist only by his contribution to optics.

Newton took part in political activities after the publication of Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. In 1688, he was elected as a member of parliament, but he had no eloquence. In a constitutional debate, Newton made only one speech-asking the usher in the venue to close the window. Later, Britain lost its credit at home and abroad because of the chaotic monetary system. In 1696, Newton's classmate Montello, who was then Chancellor of the Exchequer, asked him to be the supervisor of the Mint. Newton was extremely conscientious and his work was very effective. In 1699, Newton was appointed director of the Mint.

in p>1692, an unfortunate incident happened. One night, Newton went out and didn't put out the candle. It may be the cat's fault-knocking over the candlestick and turning his accumulated papers and works into ashes.

In p>173, the year of Hooke's death, Newton, aged 6, was promoted as the president of the Royal Society. In 174, Newton's book Optics was published. In the same year, mathematical works such as Enumeration of Cubic Curves, Finding the Area and Length of Curves by Using Non-empty Series, and Flow Mathematics (Calculus) were published.

Speaking of the founding of calculus, the dispute between Newton and German mathematician Leibniz once caused a controversy. As early as May 2, 1665, Newton wrote a page of manuscript with the record of "flow counting", because Newton kept the book