Cold Knowledge in Qing Dynasty —— Ethnic Relations between Qing Dynasty and Hui Nationality

Hui nationality is the abbreviation of Hui nationality, and it is a nationality formed by various national elements at home and abroad in the long-term historical development.

At the beginning of the Qing army's entry into the customs, violent measures such as shaving hair and enclosure were carried out in various places, which were resisted by the people of Han and Hui nationalities. In Hubei Province, the armed "Lao Hui" of Hui farmers, together with Li Zicheng and Zhang, has been fighting against the Ming Dynasty for more than ten years, and now it has been involved in the anti-Qing wave. In Shandong, Dongchangfu (now Liaocheng), Jining and other places, Hui soldiers joined the city guards at the end of Chongzhen, giving the Qing army a strong resistance. In Guangzhou, three Hui generals, Feng Qi, Zhifu and Ma Chengzu, died because of their persistence in resisting the Qing Dynasty, and were called "three religions". In Yunnan, many Hui people participated in the Nanming regime. Later, when Wang Gui retreated into Myanmar, some Hui people who followed Wang Gui were stopped in Tengyue and Baoshan areas, taking "Ming" as their surname to express their nostalgia for the former dynasty and their unwillingness to yield to the Qing Dynasty. After the Qing army occupied the Shaanxi-Gansu area where the Hui people lived, the anti-Qing uprising continued. In the fifth year of Shunzhi (48 years), the Ganzhou Uprising led by Miller Yin and Guodong Ding was the largest. They called on the Ming Dynasty to extend Wang's term of office under the slogan of "anti-Qing Dynasty and regaining sight", and they traveled all over Gansu within two years, shaking the Shanxi-Shaanxi region.

After the Ganzhou uprising was suppressed, Hao Bi, a Qing soldier, made suggestions to the Qing court, suggesting that the Qing court use military power to "have a secluded place in the bunker, and the children of the Sect will be resettled separately." Don't be a horse, don't hide weapons, and let the returning "hands teach one master." It is not enough to control its entry and exit, but also to cultivate the original land of the animal husbandry office to eliminate its fierceness. "This is not enough." I still listen to the manager and other officials from time to time. There is no reason to worry, peace has passed for a long time, the real person and the way back to two people. "His suggestion reflects the extreme hostility of feudal officials in the Qing Dynasty to the Hui people.

In terms of policy, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty did not ban Islam as An Baili did, but adopted a policy of allowing Islam to exist, discriminating in many ways and strictly guarding against it. Legally speaking, more than three Hui people who walk with weapons will commit one more crime; For immigration crimes, ordinary prisoners can apply for detention, but they cannot apply for return; Moreover, it is also stipulated that the migration site should not be in areas where Hui people live in compact communities, such as Gansu; The conviction and punishment of Huihe is also heavier than that of ordinary prisoners. When Uighur criminals get tattoos, they will tattoo the word "Uighur thief" as an insult.

In forty-six years of Qianlong (178 1) and forty-nine years (1784), Su Si III, a Salar in Xunhua, Gansu Province, and Tian Wu, a Huimin in Shifengbao, Tongwei, rebelled against the local government twice. The Qing court sent troops to suppress it, and took advantage of the contradiction between Protestantism and the old religion to adopt "forgiveness and suppression". Under the pretext of these two incidents, the Governor of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai issued a notice in 54 years in Qianlong, prohibiting Muslims from believing in Protestantism, prohibiting Han people from believing in Islam, prohibiting Muslims from adopting Han babies, and prohibiting the construction of worship temples. After the Su Forty-three Incident, the Qing court "announced Su Forty-three's head in the places where the Hui people lived in various provinces, and hung it in each place for several days as a warning". Since then, the Qing court has moved the Shaanxi prefect from xi 'an to Guyuan, and the general staff of Guyuan moved to Hezhou (now Linxia), which strengthened the deployment and control of troops in the Hui people's inhabited areas.

The resistance and repression of the Hui people in Gansu affected the whole country. Officials all over the country are searching for "residual parties" and "cults" and books that violate the regulations. For this reason, two literary trials have been launched to persecute the Hui people. In June of the 46th year of Qianlong, Xi Hui people Ma Zhongjie and Ma Wenguang seized a package of letters in Lingshi, Shaanxi on their way to Guihua City (now Hohhot). Because there was a name of "Zhang Jiao" in the letter, they shocked Shaanxi, and they thought that another person had set up another cult to incite Muslims. Ma Zhongjie was sent back to Xi 'an for trial by Bi Yuan, acting governor of Shaanxi. After repeated rigorous examination, the name Zhang Jiao already exists, and there is no other feeling. Emperor Qianlong gave an order, and he had to admit that "what he did was too much, and he didn't understand anything." The accumulation and expansion of this oppression and provocation in northwest China has become one of the main political and historical reasons for the large-scale self-defense struggle of Muslims in the future.

In the second year, in May of the forty-seventh year of Qianlong, another literary inquisition with great influence occurred. In Guilin, Guangxi, people found that Herry Liu's Chronicle of the Thousand and One Nights and other Chinese works, as well as various Islamic classics in Arabic and Persian, were carried by Huimin Haifurun of Sanya Village, Yazhou, Guangdong. Dare to call it a "true record", considered as "blasphemy", Hai Furun was arrested and imprisoned, and Chun Zhu, governor of Guangxi, flew to relevant provinces to investigate and report to the court. The case spread to Guangxi, Hubei, Jiangsu, Anhui, Yunnan, Guangdong and other provinces, involving many writers, preface writers, book delivery people, translators, Tibetan publishers and so on. A large number of Hui people's homes and worship temples were searched, which made everyone feel unsafe. Emperor Qianlong knew that the case had been dealt with strictly again, so he wrote a letter saying that Protestantism in Gansu was a cult and had been eradicated. "As for the old Muslims, there are many in various provinces. ""The so-called classics on weekdays are also related to old works. This is not real slander and destruction. " But these letters also pointed out that; This time, I found that "there are many vulgar words in the book" and "these Hui people are stupid and ignorant, and they all teach each other. If they must abide by national laws, they will be disturbed. " This imperial edict still reiterated the suppression of Protestantism, acquiesced in the search of religious books and discrimination against Hui people, but worried that if the investigation was too strict, it would be too difficult to be disturbed. The imperial edict also mentioned suppressing the uprisings in Wang Lun, Shandong Province and Wang Fulin, Gansu Province with the participation of the Hui people, which was exactly the method used by the rulers of the Qing Dynasty to treat the Hui soldiers.

In the Qing Dynasty, there were indeed many Hui people who served as soldiers and generals, such as Ha Sheng Yuan, Ha Panlong, Ha Guoxing, Ye Daxiong, Xu, Ma Jianji and Jiang Changgui. Later, during the Tongzhi period, Ma Xinyi was appointed Governor and Minister of Trade of Liangjiang. This is only used by a few people, which does not mean that the political status of the Hui people has improved. On the contrary, with the intensification of ethnic conflicts, a larger anti-Qing storm is brewing among the Hui people.

The Qing dynasty was in a relatively stable environment for a long time. Due to the implementation of policies such as stopping enclosure, encouraging reclamation, building water conservancy projects, and never increasing taxes during the prosperous period, the feudal economy in China gradually showed a trend of recovery and development, and the economic culture of the Hui people also had obvious development and changes during this period.

The population of Hui people in various places has doubled and production has developed. The memorial of Bi Yuan, the acting governor of Shaanxi Province in the forty-sixth year of Qianlong provided a representative picture of the Hui people in Shaanxi. Bi Yuan said: "Chashan Province belongs to all localities, and there are more Muslims than other provinces. However, Xi Anfu City, Chang 'an, Weinan, Lintong, Gaoling, Xianyang, Dali and Huazhou, which belong to the same state, and Nanzheng, which belongs to Hanzhong, have more Hui people living in the fortress, and the population is more dense. There are more than thousands of Muslims in the provincial capital Xi, and there are seven temples in the city. Most Hui people in Xi 'an are engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry and trade. Many of them are well-off and have worked as Wu Zhi, officials, soldiers and imperial examiners. " In Gansu, there are many Hui villages from Ningxia to Pingliang in the east, with Hezhou and Xi 'an as the center in the west. It extends to Hexi, southern Qingshui, Sol Zhang and other places, and is also a place where Hui people live in compact communities. Hui people are scattered in Henan, northern Anhui, Shandong and Hebei provinces along the canal. In Yunnan, Zhaotong, Huize and Qiaojia have developed in the east, and Dali, Baoshan and Jianchuan have developed in the west.

At the beginning of Qing Dynasty, the development of agricultural production of Hui nationality was first manifested in the development of reclamation and irrigation and water conservancy. After the Ganzhou Incident in Shunzhi, a large number of Hui people fled from Hexi to Xining and built new villages in Baitaer (now Datong). During the Qianlong period, "opening fields to build houses" had "exhausted thousands of households". Many villages in Bayan Rongting (now Hualong) were newly established by Hui people. Beichuan Camp in Xining, where Han people live together, "builds tall houses, cultivates fields, mills, fights cars, grows wheat, beans and highland barley", and collects cattle and seeds from local Mongolian nobles, and pays real rent every year. In Hami, Yili, Urumqi, Changji and other places in Xinjiang, the Hui people came here from Shaanxi and Gansu to reclaim land with the Han people in the late Qianlong period and made achievements. In the early Qing Dynasty, the Hui people from Shandong and Hebei successively went to the Northeast and Inner Mongolia to reclaim land for business and open up new residential areas. After the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the Hui people in various places made great achievements in farmland water conservancy. In Ningxia, the Hui and Han nationalities jointly built Daqing, Huinong, Qixing, Changrun and other passages, and Han Yan, Tanglai and other ancient passages were also rebuilt and expanded. The praise of "Wan Li of the Yellow River is rich in Ningxia" was won by the people of all ethnic groups who started the Yellow River water conservancy project in history and struggled tenaciously and hard against natural conditions such as "river collapse and sand pressure". In Yunnan, after hundreds of years of operation in Yuan and Ming Dynasties, most Hui people occupied places with good water conservancy conditions. In Xinxing (now Yuxi), irrigation conditions are good, and water can be diverted upward. The land where the Hui people live is "the most fertile, and drought is not barren". The Han nationality in E County (now E Mountain) and the Hui nationality in Hexi County jointly built water conservancy projects, and thousands of acres of fertile land of Hui nationality benefited from Hexi County alone, reflecting the unity of Hui nationality.

In Henan, in Kaifeng area with a large population of Hui nationality, the Yellow River burst in the 21st year of Daoguang (184 1), and 23 counties in Henan and Anhui provinces were flooded. Kaifeng was besieged by floods for eight months, and the lives and property of the Hui people in the whole city were seriously threatened, and the government was at a loss. When a dangerous situation was very urgent, more than 700 servants of the Hui people and four-street businessmen "worked for work and got no value, rushed to the top and shouted loudly before they could establish a compromise." "In order to save and protect the city, many Hui people even removed cotton-padded quilts and bricks and stones from mosques from their homes, and more than a dozen Hui youths gave their lives in the rescue. Niu Jian, the governor of Henan Province in Qing Dynasty, was also deeply moved. He invited the imperial court to rebuild Dongda Mosque with river water materials, and awarded it a plaque of "Protecting the National Halal" to show his respect. This fully reflects the fate of the Hui people who are in the same boat with nature.

Due to the different geographical conditions, the development of Hui nationality in different places also shows great imbalance. In places with fertile land and good water conservancy conditions, hardworking Hui farmers can realize production development, live a rich life and support their families. In the eighth year of Daoguang (1828), Jiang Xiangnan, a Hui scholar, said in the Western Expedition: "Ningxia's water conservancy, Yanchi and Maowo are all full, and the rural forests in the outer suburbs touch with Jianghuai", which is a prosperous scene under the bleak management of Hui farmers in Sichuan, Ningxia. In Guanzhong, there were 3,000 Hui people in Weinan at the beginning of Daoguang, "located in Fat Rao, still in Anye". Jia Dao is the most prosperous ethnic group among Hui people in Yunnan. Yongchang and fertile land are mostly owned by Hui people; Emerging, there are not many Muslims, but "living in Batou, the situation is solid, so wealth is the first." After all, the Hui people who occupy fertile land are only in a few areas. Most of them occupy mountainous areas, sandy land, riverside land and saline-alkali land. Liupanshan District in eastern Gansu (now Ningxia) and Hui people's settlements in Cangzhou and Yanshan areas of Hebei Province belong to this barren town. However, despite the harsh natural conditions, the Hui people can adapt to the environment, be diligent and enterprising, and conduct diversified management according to different environments.

The traditional feature of feudal social and economic structure in China is self-sufficient natural economy, and the rural economy of Hui nationality is no exception, but the agricultural management of Hui nationality has its own characteristics, that is, it does not rely solely on farming or grain production. Hui farmers are good at diversification and pay attention to the development of commodity production and circulation, showing a kind of hard-working and enterprising vitality. It is quite common for Hui people in rural areas to develop cash crops according to local conditions and engage in animal husbandry, transportation, handicrafts and businessmen. In the Shayuan area between Dali and Pucheng, Fuping, Lintong and Weinan, according to the characteristics of the sandy land, the Hui people "take trees instead of fields" and "the sandy land is not suitable for planting wheat, but suitable for planting dates, pears, melons and beans". Here, "the sheep crown the whole province and the thistle crown the world". Watermelon in Shayuan is more famous. When Dali was in Qianlong, Zhang Kuixiang once wrote the poem "Cucumber in Sucun": "Cucumber in Sucun is as big as a bucket, one melon is several liters, and ten melons are full of money. Hundreds of thousands of melons can be planted on an acre of land, and it is best to plant wheat beans and leeks. " In this way, Hui farmers manage cash crops according to local conditions, commercialize agricultural products and make contributions to the development of commodity production. This is true for Hui people in the Mainland and Yunnan. Qinghua Town (now Boai) in Henan Province is a village inhabited by Hui people. Here, "since Taihang Mountain meets Liuquan, bamboo forest is the most suitable place. People who live in it are engaged in artistic bamboo, and there are dozens of acres of people, so they are tired of traveling. " Cotton planting and cotton industry have developed in many cities and rural areas. In Meng County, Henan Province, "Sangpo Village is a place where Hui people live in compact communities", and Meng County is sparsely populated because of its negative mountains and rivers. "Men and women in Yi Tong only rely on textiles to make a living", "The value of textiles and cotton cloth is rented by commission".

At that time, "Mengbu" was well known. "From but so do dungans to the side wall, far-reaching merchants gathered. There are more competitions in the market in the town every day. Cars and horses can talk. The market is full of food and all industries are prosperous. Therefore, those who have many people make little profit, while those who have no beggars in the alleys have their own convenience. " This has gone beyond the natural economic category of male farming and female weaving, and the commercialization of agricultural products has been quite high, providing a wide and diverse lifestyle for the social population. The transformation from small-scale farmers' natural economy to commodity economy is an important change in rural economic relations in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Hui rural areas all over the country not only adapt to this change, but also often walk in the forefront of this change. Yunnan Hui rural areas are a group of well-off rural areas famous for being at the forefront of reform. Tengyue Hui people are "patient, smart and good at management." The alley is the richest. Luochuan, Guangtong County, Chuxiong Prefecture, has "fertile soil" and "warm climate, fertile land and abundant water to produce sucrose and cotton". Hui people are hardworking and hard-working, which has been passed down from generation to generation. People get enough things at home and have enough storage space. "From the production comparison between Hui and Han, we can also see that Hui is good at management. At the beginning of Xianfeng, an imperial adviser told the Qing court that Yunnan was "a vast country where Han people lived together" and that "Han people were simple and cultivated for a living. Huishan management, trade becomes rich. " The situation in Yunnan is quite representative among Hui people everywhere.