Unusual common sense questions

①: Xian and Reform: Xian, Quan, Du. with, to participate in, to take part in. Wei, auxiliary word. New, innovative. Xian and the Reform were mentioned in "Shang Shu·Yin Zheng". The original meaning is that those who have been affected by old customs and bad habits should be ordered to abandon the old and pursue the new. This is used to illustrate that the bourgeoisie's Revolution of 1911 compromised with the reactionary feudal forces and misinterpreted a sentence to mean that all reactionaries, including landlords and bureaucrats, were to be forgotten, so that fake foreign devils and Zhao Xiucai took advantage of this to speculate on the revolution. (See the article "My Views on "Xian and the Reform"" in the in-depth study)

②: Fascist:

On official occasions, the guards of senior officials hold fascists in front of them Represent the rank and authority of the arriving official. Depending on the level of officials, their fascist... The fascist sticks tied together represent unity, while the ax (used during the Fascist rule in ancient times - the origin of fascism

In the modern revival process of Italy However, after the unification of Italy, it began its initial expansion, and nationalism degenerated into national egoism. Later, driven by reactionary national chauvinism, that is, nationalism, Italy finally left the Triple Alliance group and joined the Allied Powers. From the end of World War I to before World War II, Italy sought to retaliate for its diplomatic failure at the Paris Peace Conference and achieve further territorial expansion. Under certain social conditions, Mussolini gradually took control of power, and fascism finally took shape in the politics, economy, and politics of various countries and nations in modern times. Nationalism exists widely in the military, diplomatic and ideological fields. Nationalism is self-confidence and self-love for one's own country and nation, but at the same time, healthy and scientific nationalism can enable people to avoid nationalism. Nihilism inspires patriotic enthusiasm and keeps a country young and prosperous. However, distorted and extreme nationalism can transform into national chauvinism and expansionism, turning nationalism, which is the spirit and soul of the nation, into something new. The corrosive agent of national rationality. Looking at the history of Italy from its disintegration to its unification in the late 1930s to the outbreak of World War II in the late 1930s, we can clearly see a pattern of nationalism going from low to rising, until it deviates from the normal track. It gradually evolved into extreme national egoism, reactionary national chauvinism, and finally the clues to fascism. At a time when nationalism is on the rise again around the world, revisiting this special journey in Italy can still give the world a clue. To enlighten and think.

1. Nationalism promoted the unity and independence of Italy

It took nearly 1,400 years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD to the final unification in the 1870s. During this period, Italy was continuously subjected to foreign invasions. Sometimes it was controlled by one country, and sometimes it became a venue for great powers to compete. After the 10th century, Germany, Spain, France, and Austria successively fought for Italy. Since the Battle of Pavia, the battlefield in the Po River Basin has indirectly determined the fate of France and Germany, and directly determined the fate of Italy. "In the 15th and 16th centuries, many countries on the European continent had become powerful centralized powers. , Italy is still a "geographical concept" (Bismarck). The feudal separatist forces in various parts of Italy are also fighting each other with the support of foreign forces, resulting in a serious state of division and cutting off economic, cultural and political exchanges. It hindered the normal development of capitalism. Although the germination of capitalism in Italy was earlier than that of any other country, it was unable to develop normally due to bad situation changes.

In the second half of the 18th century, the American Revolutionary War failed. After winning the final victory, the United States, which was originally a British colony, became an independent country. Subsequently, a bourgeois revolution broke out in France, which was adjacent to Italy. Feudal privileges were deprived, the shackles of feudal autocracy were lifted, and the bourgeoisie took control of power. The success of the international struggle inspired Italy. The contradiction between the Italian people and foreign rulers became increasingly acute. The objective process of domestic social and economic development also required the overthrow of the feudal autocracy of various states to achieve unification. Italy's specific historical situation determines that national rejuvenation must take the form of opposing humiliation and ending separatism at the same time.

However, for Italy, which has been under foreign rule and divided for more than a thousand years, it is not easy to achieve independence and reunification! Not only foreign rulers want to suppress it, but the Pope also interferes to benefit from it, and small feudal lords everywhere oppose because they are afraid of harming their own interests. How can ordinary people believe that it will become a reality? Long-term isolation and silence have made countless people lose consciousness. Italy needs to wake up first. In order to arouse the people's national consciousness - in fact, the national consciousness in the process of being formed, the thinkers of the Renaissance, the scholars of the Enlightenment, and finally the nationalists and liberals in the process of unification all held high the banner of nationalism.

As early as the Renaissance movement from the 14th to 16th centuries, many Italian scholars had explored issues such as country and unity, although the impact was not so far-reaching. Inheriting the ideological and cultural origins of the Renaissance movement, the bourgeois Enlightenment movement that unfolded in the second half of the 18th century showed more nationalist tendencies. Bourgeois revolutionaries pay more attention to cultivating the national passion of the people, building up national self-confidence, and inspiring them to participate in the struggle for national independence and reunification. Economist Genovitch read out the speech in Italian at the first lecture on "Economy and Business" in Europe; Tirabowski published a multi-volume "History of Italian Culture". In addition, many philosophers, jurists, societies and societies were also organized. Therefore, after extensive publicity and encouragement by enlightenment scholars, the fragmented overall consciousness of the Italians was connected by a thread, and a unified psychology and desire began to form. Since the end of the 18th century, the Italian people's idea of ??reviving the country has been "escaped from literary works and turned into political practice."

First of all, the Carbonari Party launched an anti-French and anti-Austrian struggle. At the end of the 18th century, Napoleon rose to power in France. The French army invaded Austria-controlled Italy. Although Italy was temporarily unified because the feudal monarchs were driven away by Napoleon, the issue of Italian independence remained the same, except that France took over from Austria. At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon's rule in Europe was in crisis, and revolutionary trends emerged in Italy. The communist struggle against Napoleon's rule made the Italian nation's resistance activities get rid of the scattered and isolated state in the past and merged into a huge torrent. The Carbonari took the lead in leading the struggle. They expanded from the southern tip of the country to the entire Apennine Peninsula. Later, the anti-French alliance on the European continent won the victory. At the Congress of Vienna from 1814 to 1815, Italy was redivided into eight states, and the power of Austria, Spain, and the Pope were also restored. The Carbonarians continued to carry out the anti-Austrian struggle under the banner of national independence and received enthusiastic help from the people. People everywhere donated generously to the suffering Coal Party members to support the just cause. By the 1830s, the Carbonari Party had basically withdrawn from the stage of struggle, and the Renaissance movement was temporarily at a low ebb. However, the national sentiment of the Italians has risen after the first baptism of blood and sword, and the national consciousness has further awakened. Anti-Austrian and patriotic nationalist thoughts are stirring everywhere, which is reflected in the vigorous "cultural renaissance" movement in the cultural field. This prepared a profound ideological foundation for the outbreak of the large-scale bourgeois national democratic revolution - the 1848 revolution.

The leaders of the revival movement after the 1930s - both democrats and liberals - all had a stronger national consciousness. They used nationalism as the driving force for practice and made outstanding contributions to the reunification of the motherland.

More importantly, nationalism unites different factions in the movement and enhances the strength of the struggle for independence and reunification. This effect is reflected in the entire process of movement. Inspired and motivated by nationalist ideas, the revolutionary situation in Italy ignited like dry firewood poured with oil. By 1871, Italy entered the capitalist era as an independent country and began to play a role on the European international stage.

The one used for beheading) represents the highest power. 2. Initial expansion after unification: the degeneration of nationalism

The unification of Italy drove away foreign invaders, achieved national independence, eradicated many barriers and constraints that hindered the development of industry and commerce, and formed a large domestic Markets, railways, textiles and other industries were developed, and currency and other measurement systems were unified. It should be said that this is a huge improvement compared to the miserable situation in the past. However, the international situation and domestic situation at this time are no longer what they used to be.

Internationally, capitalist countries such as Britain and France have already begun colonial expansion in various places, and their sphere of influence has spread rapidly. They have plundered a large amount of wealth for the development of capitalism and devoured every piece of fat. This behavior had endless temptations for the new Italy. The real economic development areas in the country are only concentrated in a very small area in the north. The vast agricultural areas in the south not only have a larger population but lower productivity levels, but have also become sales places for northern goods. Regional economic development is unbalanced, and many people in the south Yearn and move overseas. The Cavourites, who were in power after reunification, not only failed to take effective measures to stimulate economic recovery and development, but also passed on the financial difficulties caused by years of war to the working people. Social unrest emerged and intensified day by day. In 1871, the free industrial and commercial bourgeois group came to power. They not only wanted to push products from the narrow domestic market to the international market, but also wanted to obtain raw materials from the vast overseas market to develop capitalism. Italy began colonial expansion under the pretext of national and economic interests. Nationalism has metamorphosed.

This transformation is most prominently reflected in the competition with France in Tunisia. Tunisia is Italy's nearest African neighbor, straddling the narrow throat of the Mediterranean Sea with Sicily. It has only a population of 1.5 million, but has 7.5 million acres of arable land, and there are rich mineral deposits underground. As early as the 1860s, Italian politicians were aware of Tunisia's importance to Italy and repeatedly warned citizens to care about foreign colonial undertakings. Therefore, a large number of Italians flocked to Tunisia. However, at the Berlin Conference in 1881, France was promised to treat Tunisia as its "sphere of influence", and later French armed forces took control of Tunisia and declared it a French protectorate. The public sentiment in Italy was furious, and many conflicts occurred on the French-Italian border. It seemed that the era of opposition to Napoleon's rule was coming again. Under such circumstances, although Italy and Austria were feuding, and in reality there was still the Trentino issue, in order to compete with France, it still participated in the German-Italian-Austrian Triple Alliance in 1882. It can be said that Italy's alliance with Austria is based on certain national sentiments. Once the situation changes, it may withdraw from the Triple Alliance.

Italy lost to France in Tunisia, but it frequently succeeded elsewhere. In 1882, the port of Assab, intended to be located on the Red Sea coast of Africa, expanded its dominance along the coast. After the death of Depretis, Crispi, who restored domestic order, won the support of all classes and strata. Crispi was ambitious and dreamed of establishing a huge colonial empire. He formed the colony of Eritrea from the lands he acquired along the Red Sea coast, and acquired Somaliland. Italy is even more coveted for Ethiopia, which has rich resources and an important strategic position but is relatively backward. In 1890, Crispi declared a protectorate of Egypt to Europe. In 1895, Italy sent troops to Ethiopia, but was defeated miserably in the Battle of Adwa in 1896. Although Crispi, an expansionist, had done a great job, he still failed to fulfill his "mission" well. When news of the fiasco was announced in the country, "people were outraged." Crispi's political career ended. In fact, due to historical reasons, Italy is inferior to Britain and France in terms of economic and military strength. Of course, it will be unable to achieve its goals if it attempts to embark on the road of colonial expansion shortly after completing its independence and reunification.

3. Nationalism is the period of reactionary national egoism and national chauvinism.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the domestic and international situation faced by Italy changed greatly. The domestic economy improved significantly: the development and utilization of cheap water resources accelerated industrial development; foreign trade increased by as much as 70% between 1901 and 1910, and the government's fiscal balance began to appear balanced. A large number of people left their hometowns due to the agricultural crisis in the 1870s. The foreign exchange sent back by Italian overseas Chinese made up for the deficit in the international balance of payments, and the international reputation of the Italian lira was improved. However, economic development further intensified the contradiction between the small domestic market and the limited raw materials, and the economic aggressiveness changed from implicit to explicit. change. Internationally, due to the imbalance of political and economic development, countries have intensified their fierce competition. On the European continent, Bismarckism, which worshiped force, deeply "enlightened" Italy. A similar history of unification has led many Italians to become superstitious about Bismarck's "iron and blood" creed. "Supranational and Superman", "racial theory" and "Aryanism" have also found a certain market in Italy. As a result, new nationalism, that is, reactionary "nationalism", emerged.

Some people misinterpret Mazzini's "Third Rome" and Giobetti's "Italy's primacy" to defend their illusory empire of having colonies revered throughout Europe. Under these special conditions, nationalism completely lost its scientific meaning, and national egoism, expansionism, and chauvinism were rampant in Italy in various guises.

The first is the public opinion circle. For example, "Ideo Nazionale" edited by Corradini, as well as "Tricolore" and "Grande Italia" all acted as advocates and vanguards. Corradini advocated militarism and colonial expansion, tried to arouse the spirit of adventure, and praised the "moral value" of war. These arguments cater to the psychology of those who are restless and dissatisfied, and are also welcomed by industrialists. Next is literature. D'Annunzio's doctrine that people must be ruthless and cruel, the "most outstanding representative" of the "realist" new poets, deeply influenced the younger generation. There are also manifestations of this reactionary "nationalism" in history and economics. For example, Orioni used his historical works to express expansionist views and demands for an African empire. A group of economists headed by Alberti believed that the future Italian economy should penetrate into countries in the Near East, Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. Italy began the "forward policy" of "glorious greatness".

After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy swung between the Entente Group and the Allies and finally joined the Entente war. This seemed to be the success of the Entente Group’s diplomacy, but it was actually the rise of the so-called national interests. effect. Although the degenerated Italian nationalism served as a tool to compete with other powers, it did not oppose Austria very strongly because the royal family and other upper-class members of society had historical blood ties with Austria. In its relations with Austria, the Italian government cannot make full use of this tool. When Italy and Austria can compromise on international issues, the government moderately suppresses the promotion of nationalism; when the contradiction between Italy and Austria cannot be concealed, the Italian government also uses "nationalism" to break with it. At the beginning of the war, Italy adopted a policy of neutrality. It longed for Trentino under Austrian occupation, but was rebuffed. While care was lingering, Britain and France met their territorial requirements for Trantino and other places. Therefore, in May 1915, Italy announced its withdrawal from the Triple Alliance. In this regard, Lenin said: "We have seen with our own eyes that revolutionary democratic, that is, revolutionary bourgeois Italy, the Italy that overthrew Austrian oppression, the Italy of Garibaldi's time, has evolved into an Italy that oppresses its nation and plunders Turkey and Austria. It has become a tyrannical, utterly reactionary, despicable bourgeois Italy.”

4. After World War I, "nationalism" was used by the fascist movement and completely evolved into fascism

In World War I, Italy paid a huge price, but in the At the Paris Peace Conference, Britain and France were unwilling to strengthen their influence in the Mediterranean and the Balkans and refused to fulfill their commitments. At the "President Wilson's Arbitration" conference (Orlando language), most of the spoils of war were seized by Britain and France. The Italian president received 100,000 square miles of land, while the British received 2.5 million and France received 1 million. Italy's claim to Fiume was also frustrated. The results of the peace conference reached the country, and all classes felt sad and angry. There was a "patriotic fever" in the country, and the ghost of nostalgia for ancient Rome was also wandering around. They felt that "Italy won the war but lost the peace. Despite its gains, Italy showed up at the peace conference as a dissatisfied country." Italy has accused the government of being incompetent and hopes for a strong government to realize its territorial claims. Mussolini and other reactionary "nationalist" elements catered to and took advantage of this sentiment of the people. They took the opportunity to use the banner of revisionism, advocated Italy's right to expand, praised the vast territory and martial spirit of ancient Rome, and promised to wash away the shame of Versailles and seize power. "Ultranationalism is the core of fascist theory." There was a foundation for the rise of fascism first in Italy. "...In just 20 years after the end of World War I, the road between German, Italian, and Japanese fascism leading to world war ran through a main line of ultra-nationalist politicization characterized by expansion and aggression."

In 1914, when Mussolini was expelled from Forward and the Italian Socialist Party, he used the Italian People's Daily to agitate and support the "nationalist" proposal of "removing the country through war." Heroism saves people from insignificance and poverty."

After the Paris Peace Conference, Hesolini blamed the failure at the peace conference on the Socialist Party, which advocated neutrality when signing the contract. He accused the "Socialist Party of being a national rebellion" and dressed himself up as the so-called patron saint of national interests. In the autumn of 1921, Mussolini announced at the Fascist Party meeting that the key points of the party program were: "Carry out social reforms and improve the country's prestige abroad", etc. Its core idea was "nationalism". The Fascist Party's party platform catered to Italy's domestic needs at the time, and its reactionary and charming propaganda was initially effective. In the same year, Mussolini ran for office with the Liberal Party and the Nationalist Party. Mexico declared that only Italians, the proud representatives of the Aryans, had the right to rule the high seas (referring to the Mediterranean), and reiterated that fascist foreign policy could be summarized as "imperialism" and "national expansionism." As a result, the Fascist Party won 35 seats, accounting for 7%. In the general election of parliament in 1922, Mo made a lot of nonsense again to increase his appeal. Fascism exploits unhealthy national sentiments, national chauvinism, and national expansionism, and gradually overlaps with them. It adapted to the specific political, economic, and social situation in Italy after World War I. Not only the big landowners, big bourgeoisie, churches, and kings were satisfied with it, but also the urban petty bourgeoisie, workers, farmers, businessmen, artists, and even unemployed vagrants. They are all full of "love" for it. Fascism first emerged in Italy after World War I.

In July 1923, Mussolini, who took control of the country, began an adventurous operation. He ordered troops to be sent to Corfu, Greece. Although some people have doubts about his "ambition", the vast majority of people still firmly support him. As a result, he saw that even many non-fascist party members and anti-fascists warmly welcomed his adventurous policies. The elections in the spring of 1924 once again demonstrated widespread support for fascism. The fascist party continued to strengthen its power and expand its aggression. In January 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia without declaring war and completely occupied the country the following year. There was a new upsurge in the fanatical worship of the great "leader" in Italy, and Mussolini was praised as a god. Farmers knelt before him in the fields, women raised their children to ask for his blessing; cabinet ministers stood at attention in front of him for several hours. "At that time, there were slogans like this everywhere in Italy: 'Leader, you are everything to us.'" [7] Mussolini established a personal dictatorship and received "trust" and "response". He dragged Italy into the war. The abyss also has a realistic possibility.

5. Some thoughts on the evolution of Italian nationalism

G. Wilp, who was the first to regard fascism as the product of a complex historical process, believed: "Fascism Mussolini was rooted in the Italian national liberation movement in the 19th century and was supported by those who supported Italian nationalism from the unification to the outbreak of the war."[8] Ironically, Mussolini was born shortly after Garibaldi's death. , is often talked about, as if he is the heir to this hero dedicated to national unity, who will take over the torch to create an Italian empire. But after all, Mo lacked the rationality to deal with nationalist issues like the heroes during the independence and reunification period, and the domestic and international conditions before and after independence and reunification were very different. Mussolini's crime, or the sorrow and disaster of the modern Italian nation, is that when national independence and national reunification were achieved, nationalism not only failed to follow suit, but was swayed by wrong thoughts and understandings, and gradually Degeneration, thereby pushing the country and the nation towards the path of aggression and expansion. Nationalism is the source of the spiritual power of a nation-state, and all hegemonisms and authoritarians can also find support and strength in it - if nationalism is distorted, deformed, and degenerated. The booming Italy has intentionally or unintentionally forgotten that nationalism also has the respect for other countries and nations, which ultimately led to the spread of fascism and brought misfortune to the Italian people and even the entire human race. This painful history warns people: In today's complicated world, especially when extreme nationalism and fundamentalism have been on the rise in recent years, we must grasp this issue well, and we must not only dare to fight against the reshaped neo-colonialism, We must fight against power politics to safeguard the interests of the nation-state and prevent unhealthy national egoism from harming relations with the entire international family. All ethnic groups and countries should learn from each other and follow the path of peaceful development